Review of the Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Act 1999 Consultation Report

4 Barriers to achieving equality for women in the workplace

4.1 Social and cultural barriers to equality in women's employment
4.2 Tangible barriers in the workplace

This section outlines the key barriers to achieving equality for women in the workplace that have been identified through consultation activities.

This section firstly considers a number of underlying social and cultural causes of the barriers to equality for women in the workplace, including attitudinal factors that influence the way both men and women within workplaces make decisions that result in inequality for women. The section then considers the actual or tangible barriers that women face in participating equally in workplaces, identifying factors that prevent them from achieving equal representation across all levels of the organisation and receiving equal pay.

4.1 Social and cultural barriers to equality in women's employment

4.1.1 Attitudes and culture

Attitudes and beliefs about men and women, including stereotypes and opinions about appropriate roles for men and women in society, were one of the most frequently raised issues across all consultations conducted for this review.

Many people attributed the 'choices' that women make in education and employment to social norms and pressure arising from traditional notions of 'appropriate' work for women, which begins at a very early age and continues throughout women's lives. For example, decisions about whether to engage in paid work, to work full or part-time, and the types of industries or occupations in which to work, are influenced by attitudes that women are better at certain types of roles - those usually related to nurturing and caring. Domestic arrangements also operate to impact on women's participation in the workforce, with the division of labour in the home being a critical factor affecting hours worked and roles undertaken in the workforce.

[ top ]

Traditional attitudes, when held by men in senior decision-making roles in organisations, were also identified as an underlying cause of pre-judging, under-estimating or de-valuing women's skills. Such attitudes can limit women's access to certain training, development and promotional opportunities, and may contribute to designing job roles that are easier for people without family responsibilities to perform (usually men). Such attitudes can lead to bias against women in recruitment and selection processes. They were also observed to underlie workplace cultures in male-dominated industries and organisations that may be hostile or uncomfortable for women, and therefore resist or repel women who would otherwise seek equal participation in those industries.

Forty-one percent of public submissions received as part of the public submission process identified society's perception of men's and women's roles as a key barrier to equality for women in the workplace. This was the most or equally most frequently highlighted barrier from both individuals and expert individuals, as well as academic, community organisation, government, and industry submission sources. This was listed by half or more of the submissions from academic (10 of 17), community organisation (14 of 28) and industry (12 of 24) sources. Unions and peak bodies were the only submission sources to not identify this barrier most frequently.

...;the biggest impediment of true equality of opportunity for women in Australian (and other) workplaces is the inherent sexist culture

(Submission, Griffith University)

The EEO 'problem' is still viewed in many organisations as about women's individual disadvantage and individual women's lack of access to equal employment opportunities rather than as structural discrimination against women and / or organisational cultures that prevent women from reaching their full potential and being fairly rewarded for the work they do.

(Submission, Dr Sara Charlesworth)

At all roundtable discussions conducted for the review, a key topic of conversation was the embedded cultural issues that make equal opportunity difficult to address, and the significant resource effort required to truly achieve equal opportunity. The Sydney roundtable discussed the tendency for women to accept inequality and the constraints it brings, rather than face the risks of challenging the status quo.

The Adelaide roundtable attributed this reduced awareness of the challenges, and with this the lack of a drive for change, to the issue no longer being a priority on the political and community agendas. They highlighted the lack of campaigns about women in the workplace, both currently and for the past 15 years. The Melbourne and Brisbane roundtables discussed the lack of understanding by individuals of the complexities of the issues. The Brisbane roundtable went on to focus upon the lack of effort in some organisations to find ways to do things differently, despite the policies often being in place. The gap between having policy and implementing the policy was identified as an issue.

[ top ]

A not uncommon view was how these attitudes and culture are inherent features of many workplaces, and can occur across all industries. Many argued that workplaces define 'merit' or 'value' or 'strengths' in traditional ways that can mask discriminatory practices. For example, the culture of a workplace may place a greater emphasis on the number of hours worked rather than actual output or quality of output.

The Adelaide roundtable considered long work hours and length of service to be discriminatory performance measurement indicators, due to their unfair implications for women with family commitments. The implications identified included both perceived less experience and the resultant delayed promotion and career path progression, as well as the potential age discrimination that can then ensue. There is also a perception of missing out on promotions if working under flexible arrangements, due both to perceptions of the value of part time workers, as well as to the perception that senior positions cannot be filled on part time / shared arrangements. The Melbourne roundtable illustrated the issue by using the tertiary sector as an example, where one commonly used aspect of performance measurement is the quantity of publications achieved by an employee each year, rather than the quality or the contribution of those publications.

The 'long working hours culture' of organisations in Australia was also observed to be an inhibiting cultural factor as it impacts on both a woman's decision to undertake a role (the feeling of having to choose between a career and a family), and also her feelings of adequacy and security in being able to effectively undertake the role should she choose to work a reduced number of hours.

Eleven per cent of public submissions identified the 'long working hours culture' of organisations as a barrier to equal opportunity. No significant differences can be seen across submission sources in the identification of this barrier.

The Sydney roundtable discussed the 'long work hours culture' in relation to technology improvements, and how workplaces no longer respect the private space of individuals. The Adelaide and Melbourne roundtables discussed this issue in relation to its lack of alignment with family commitments, and the job security threats that can be felt by individuals, that in turn discourage them from choosing flexible arrangements.

[ top ]

In an interview with Dr Alex Birrell, the 'long work hours' culture was discussed as a barrier to women achieving equal employment opportunity. It was argued that, while this work culture does not, on its face, discriminate on the basis of gender, it is a significant barrier to progressing in the workplace for women who have caring responsibilities.

Women continue to be the primary domestic providers. A 'long hours' culture and a need to work five days a week traditionally puts considerable strain on a woman (rather than a man) as she attempts to manage family care and work commitments. This perpetual juggle, with little time for 'other activities', creates an unsustainable environment ultimately leading to women going part time or leaving the workforce.

(Interview, Dr Alex Birrell)

One employee survey respondent put the view that equal opportunity legislation itself can create additional attitudinal barriers and biases, in that it can undermine a woman's further progression if it is perceived that women have been progressed because of the legislation rather than on the basis of merit.

This sentiment was echoed in an interview with Catherine Harris AO, where she discussed how legislative entitlements can be considered negatively by some employers.

I also think there has been a backlash against women as a result of the increasing entitlements for workers with family responsibilities. There is a hidden opposition to employing women because they may have children and leave the organisation. I think while these attitudes have always been there, I think now there is more willingness and permission for men to voice them in business and in the community.

(Interview, Catherine Harris AO)

Another employee survey respondent also observed this issue, 'I think there are people in the business community that don't get it - they view initiatives for women as discriminatory towards men' (employee survey respondent).

The effect of stereotyping on women's success in the workplace was also commented on by some contributors. Examples included instances where attributes and skills that are valued in a man can be seen as negative features in a woman - dominant leadership can be viewed negatively in a woman, and can lead to her being labelled as 'troublesome'; decisiveness in a man can be viewed as clarity of vision, while the same attribute in a woman may see her labelled as 'inflexible'; being consultative can result in a woman being labelled as 'lacking in confidence'.

This issue was discussed in a public submission from Women's Forum Australia: '...;women are evaluated negatively when they try to apply the full range of leadership styles, particularly the more directive and autocratic approaches which might be seen as 'unfeminine.''

The issue of the same behaviour being perceived differently if it is done by a man rather than a woman was also identified as a recruitment barrier for women at the Melbourne roundtable.

[ top ]

4.1.2 Lack of data and understanding of the dimensions of inequality in workplaces

Consultation activities identified a common concern about current data collection processes, and the belief that they are failing to adequately capture gender-based disadvantage in the workplace. Inadequacy of data on the dimensions of inequality in the workforce was identified as contributing to both a lack of understanding of the issue itself, as well as a lack of evidence on the scale of the issue.

Data collection and scrutiny

While some consulted through the review hold the general view that current data collection processes are variable and unreliable, other comments pointed to more specific data gaps, such as the lack of available data on industry pay differentials between men and women, the lack of available data relating to employment of women with disabilities or the issues confronting Indigenous women, and the lack of data on structural barriers that may be impacting on women's workforce participation, such as the availability of child care or of transport. It was argued that these data shortcomings have serious implication for addressing issues relating to inequality for women - if organisations do not have appropriate metrics to support the adequate measurement of opportunities and outcomes, they will be unable to adequately develop actions and programs to achieve progress in this area.

The lack of structured criteria on which employers must report makes it difficult for employers to effectively identify EEO issues and for the EOWW Agency to assess EEO reports in a consistent manner and produce meaningful EEO data.

(Submission, Australian Council of Trade Unions)

A further example was provided at the Perth roundtable, which discussed how organisations' training records may indicate that women and men have received the same amount of training, yet a more detailed examination of the data may reveal that women are not receiving equitable leadership training. Such discrepancies were also more generally considered at the Melbourne and Sydney roundtables, where participants felt that common metrics used by organisations are inadequate for exposing existing inequality outcomes. This was reiterated by the concern that, while workplaces believe equality is being achieved, roundtable participants feel the inequality is there but is instead just not visible. The Perth roundtable also discussed this issue, in particular the common misconception that pay equity is no longer an issue in Australian workplaces, which was considered to be attributable to a lack of appropriate data collection or scrutiny. The Sydney roundtable highlighted how confidentiality and commerciality issues also create difficulty in exposing embedded pay inequality issues.

Whilst this barrier received very little mention by reporting organisation survey respondents, it did receive some mention by employee survey respondents. There was a general statement highlighting the need for visibility, 'Finally we need to get the drilled down diversity data out there because many organisations think the women's equality problem has been fixed!', as well as a survey respondent that made specific reference to how this barrier exists in relation to supporting return to work after maternity leave: 'Gathering of data regarding what really happens to women returning to work after maternity leave in terms of their right to return to a job at the same level / same pay.'

[ top ]

Converting data into results

A further observation concerned inaction relating to the data collected, with the perception in many organisations being that the provision of data fulfils their obligation and is the end of the matter. Not surprisingly, given the omissions described above, the current format for reporting was considered by many throughout the consultation activities to be too general, and to be contributing to a focus on compliance rather than on accurate and productive outcomes.

This was discussed in the public submissions by the South Australian Wine Industry Association (SAWAI), which described the report process as retrospective rather than forward-planning and, as such, how 'the reporting process provides little value to organisations, except perhaps to compare data and statistics from one year to the next...;and little benefit is observed for women workers'. SAWAI continued on to describe the process as 'a matter of reporting by default rather than... to set proactive targets and to measure effectiveness of programs'.

The Melbourne roundtable discussed the gap in outcomes, observing that inappropriate metrics also mean a poor conversion of measures into useful actions and programs.

Data gaps

The lack of specification and dimensions of reporting requirements for alternative business types, for marginal groups of women such as culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD), Indigenous, rural or women with disabilities, was consistently identified as being inadequate across all consultations. The marginal nature of these groups creates a greater vulnerability and even less 'choice' in terms of equality outcomes. Such groups were identified in consultations as missing out on necessary acknowledgement and protection.

The Perth roundtable discussed the lack of data available about minority groups. The roundtable also highlighted how these groups are often focused upon for what they cannot do, rather than what they can do.

Participants in the Melbourne roundtable argued the case for more specific guidelines, or for modifications to reporting that would specify requirements for different industry types and for organisations of different sizes. The Adelaide roundtable made specific reference to small organisations and their need for equal opportunity requirements due to the high proportion of small businesses comprising the business sector, and the high female workforce in this sector. Also identified were the needs of women in rural areas and, at the Brisbane roundtable, the needs of Indigenous women.

This is not a universal viewpoint, however, some participants to the review indicated their view that the current reporting format is useful and adequate. For example, Clayton Utz in their public submission discussed how the '...;reporting helped us to identify and understand the 'hidden issues'.'

[ top ]

4.1.3 Lack of recognition and understanding of the benefits

The lack of knowledge within some organisations about the benefits arising from improving women's employment opportunities was identified as a key barrier for achieving equal opportunity outcomes. There was an overall perception that the economic and productivity arguments for improving employment opportunities and outcomes for women are not adequately understood by employers. This barrier was cited across consultation activities.

It was asserted that, in some instances, decision makers in organisations are not equipped with the insight or awareness to recognise the benefits that having a workplace practising equal opportunity can have on business outcomes. In such instances, investment in equal opportunity initiatives is associated more with compliance and moral responsibility, rather than improving the bottom line. The implications of this is a lesser incentive and a reduced willingness on the part of decision makers to ensure initiatives are developed or maintained and wasted potential for improved outcomes in equal opportunity for women. This sentiment was raised during discussions with some interviewees and through the public submissions process.

A major barrier is the management model in industries - they see labour as a cost that they need to drive down, however there are false economies here because often poor pay and conditions lead to higher turnover which itself generates cost. And for the economy generally, low wages for women over their lifespan results in increased poverty and this lasts into retirement with additional burdens in terms of the aged pension.

(Interview, Louise Tarrant, Katherine Whitty and Elaine Hudson, Liquor, Hospitality and Miscellaneous Union)

The Agency has focused on the business case of EEO in encouraging compliance with the Act by reporting organisations and this has effectually led to deregulation. The business case argument is largely rhetorical for organisations with little actual cost/benefit analysis or measurement of business outcomes undertaken, and fails to consider the role of employees in the internal governance of corporations

(Submission, Susan McGrath-Champ)

In addition to the business case, many stakeholders pointed to a lack of understanding and recognition of the broader benefits to national productivity and the economy. These circumstances were attributed during roundtable consultations to both a lack of research in this area and a lack of awareness and education amongst decision makers. In particular, the Sydney roundtable participants highlighted current economic conditions and the national skills shortage, as well as the ageing population, as arguments that should be used in support of equal opportunity, reasoning that sound economic rationale can encourage organisations to become more flexible in their working arrangements.

[ top ]

4.2 Tangible barriers in the workplace

4.2.1 Concentration of women in lower paid positions - occupational segregation

Many contributors to the consultation process observed that women were often to be found in part-time and casual jobs (e.g. the hospitality sector), in the lower paid professions (e.g. child care), and were less often found in senior executive or managerial positions. The concentration of women in occupations that attract lower pay was argued to be a tangible barrier preventing women from realising workplace equality.

Women in lower paid professions

The Financial Services Institute of Australasia (Finsia) observed in its submission, '...;that women employed part time in the finance sector are also twice as likely to be in clerical positions as men in equivalent positions in the finance industry (65 per cent for women, compared to 32 per cent for men).'

Some stakeholders consulted attributed such outcomes to the cultural and attitudinal issues discussed earlier in this section, including the particular effects of socialisation in encouraging women and men into specific roles. This point was raised through individual interviews:

Our industrial system was founded on biased, stereotypical thinking. For decades decisions were made on gender based (or gender related) grounds. While some important changes have been progressed, other key issues and gender determinants have really only received a form of 'bandaid' or 'quick-fix' treatment...; The day that we comprehensively audit and pay for all of the skills that nurses and primary school teachers are required to bring to their roles, compared to those of underground miners, will be the day that we have truly made progress. Additional or heightened payments historically received in male dominated areas have never been addressed properly nor extended to the child care workers or hairdressers for example. The underpins of the wage system are gender flawed - the boys jobs get chemical and dirt money ...; the girls jobs don't.

(Interview, Susan Halliday)

[ top ]

Lack of women in senior executive or managerial positions

The lack of women in senior positions, as an element of occupational segregation, was seen as a barrier to women achieving equal employment opportunity in general and, more specifically, to women in junior positions attaining more senior positions.

...there has been little or no progress in the more difficult areas of pay equity and the promotion and advancement of women, especially into positions of leadership

(Submission, EOWA)

Of the challenges identified for reporting organisations to achieve equal employment opportunity, reporting organisation survey respondents ranked the 'Lack of women in management / supervisory positions' as the most significant challenge (ranked challenge one and two most frequently). This issue was most notably prioritised by respondents in Professional, Scientific and Technical Services, Financial and Insurance Services, Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services, and Agriculture Forestry and Fishery.

Employees also indicated their awareness of this issue through the employee survey. Seventy one percent of employee respondents who indicated that women do not have equal employment opportunity identified the 'Lack of women in management or supervisory positions' as a challenge within the workplace to achieve equal opportunity for women. This was the most frequently recognised challenge. When breaking this response down by industry, the identification of women in lower paid roles was identified as a barrier in most sectors, with a high proportion of respondents in the Property and Business Services Sector highlighting the issue.

The corollary to these comments was the observation of concentrations of men in senior positions or positions of power. The predominance of males in key decision-making roles has raised concerns for the likelihood of change in attitudes towards equal opportunity initiatives and outcomes. This issue has long-term implications, with the observed lack of female role models threatening the ability to diminish this barrier in future.

[ top ]

This phenomenon was commonly referred to in public submissions and roundtable discussions as the predominance of 'boys clubs' within senior management of organisations. The 'boys clubs' phenomenon was frequently discussed in terms of its impact on women, where it was seen to have negative flow-on effects for pay (the pay gap between genders widens at higher income and occupational levels), for recruitment into the industry, and for general attitudes towards working women.

The Perth roundtable discussed the need for women to be supported in leadership roles, and the importance of these women in driving change. The Sydney roundtable discussed the 'blokey' culture that can typically exist at the executive level of many organisations, and the resistance of such a culture to change. This was, on occasion, observed to be compounded by 'uninspiring' women, who achieve seniority but do not provide the necessary role models for younger women. The Sydney and Adelaide roundtables observed that these women are often not champions of equal opportunity and do not represent the interests of women more broadly. The Adelaide roundtable discussed how some women in these positions feel that, if they had to work hard to get there, so too should the younger generations of female leaders. The Melbourne roundtable discussed the barrier of 'boys clubs' in terms of the subconscious bias in decision making that can occur in leaders, which can impact on equal opportunity outcomes where gender-bias decisions are made by a group that is all male.

While respondents to the reporting organisation survey did not make reference to 'boys clubs', quite a number of employee survey respondents did. They commonly made reference to the issues of 'boys clubs' in senior positions and Board directorships, but also more broadly.

My view is that the Australian business culture is one of 'blokiness', is very task focussed and ego driven. This means that the holding of technical knowledge / skills, a focus on short term outcomes, process and procedures and achieving recognition for the individual to achieve outcomes is valued above collaboration and relationship building (which are women's strengths) and which are often more effective in attaining effective outcomes.

(employee survey respondent)

[ top ]

4.2.2 Lack of childcare and parental leave

Issues identified to a limited degree through the public submissions and surveys, as well as during the individual interviews, was the difficulty in securing high quality, flexible, and affordable childcare, and the availability of parental leave. Without the presence of both childcare and parental leave, a woman's capacity to maintain her desired level of engagement within the workforce was considered to be increasingly difficult. The notion that women have 'choices' in maintaining their career and managing family needs in parallel with each other has become a key point of contention.

Parental leave

The issue of parental leave was identified to a small degree through consultation activities.

Adherence to Work and Family measures in awards and agreements such as carer's leave and rosters considering family responsibilities is an ongoing struggle

(Submission, Union)

Another submission from an individual submitter describes the poor parental leave situation as resulting in, 'the career OR motherhood scenario', whereby women are forced to make a choice between the two.

Some employee survey respondents also discussed the issue of women having to make a choice between their work and children:

I believe many women are into fulfilling working lives after years of being in the workplace, and want to have children when they're a bit older, yet do not wish to forfeit their working lives.

(employee survey respondent )

An allied issue was the need to address the cultural issues inhibiting the effective implementation of gender-neutral childcare and parental leave initiatives to facilitate the greater involvement of fathers in the care of children.

Brisbane roundtable discussions highlighted the cultural issues inherent in the expectation that it will be the mother who will care for a child, and the father only on one-off occasions. Participants felt that there is a lack of recognition of the involvement of the father in the parental role other than around the time of the birth of the child. This was identified by participants as due to a lack of adequate policy and strategy around the role of fathers at the government level, which in turn results in employers not following through on this issue at the organisational level.

[ top ]

Availability of childcare

Similar to the issue of parental leave, the issue of the availability of quality childcare was raised to a small degree across consultation activities. In total, 14 submissions identified a lack of access to affordable and quality childcare as a barrier to women's equal participation in the workforce. Submissions from expert individuals identified this barrier the most (33 percent), industry (17 percent), and community organisations (14 percent).

The structural facets involved when addressing this issue were highlighted:

The provision of accessible (geographically and hours open) and affordable childcare will assist many parents, women in particular, to better manage the work / life split.

(Submission, Griffith University)

At the Perth roundtable, a lack of available childcare was identified as a barrier to women's equal employment outcomes.

In the individual interviews, representatives from the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ACCI) identified that the lack of childcare and paid parental leave has potentially been an obstacle for some women, as it represents a challenge for them to remain attached to the workforce. In addition, Judith Van Unen from the Council of Small Business Organisations of Australia identified that the costs of childcare creates a disincentive for women to work and this should be addressed. Additionally, Samiro Douglas observed:

Childcare has to be seen as a 'workforce enabler'. Current out of school hours care is not well funded. Generally they don't have their own premises, children aged 5-12 are all in one room and there's no homework space or support, so parents have to do homework after dinner. Activities are ok for children to year 3 but older children don't want to attend, which creates guilt or the mother has to find alternatives, such as reducing hours. Childcare and vacation care are expensive, and can be more than the women is paid to work. There's no aftercare or childcare rebates for young people over 12. Many parents are not happy to have their 12 year old at home alone all the time.

(Interview, Samiro Douglas, Women's Information and Referral Exchange)

The issue of childcare was brought up once in the reporting organisation survey, in free text, where the structural aspects were observed to be both inadequate and costly. In contrast, childcare was raised a number of times in the employee survey, including the statement that there exists a 'lack of adequate childcare...;and flexible work options for male carers' (employee survey respondent).

[ top ]

4.2.3 Lack of quality, flexible roles

The need for flexibility in job design and work arrangements has been widely acknowledged across consultation activities with particular concern expressed in relation to the quality of the flexible positions that are available to provide women with more of a 'choice' in order to achieve equal opportunity. Observations provided to the review noted that there are few quality, part-time roles available to women and that, where part-time jobs are available, they are often designed around employer requirements rather than jobs being re-designed to accommodate women who desire to progress in their career through a flexible role. This was noted particularly to be the case for senior positions where a noticeable lack of part-time positions is offered, or where there is inflexibility about the number of hours to be worked.

Flexible employment

This issue of flexible work was identified in consultation responses to have particular implications for women from a CALD, Indigenous or disadvantaged background, as well as for women with disabilities and those transitioning to and from other flexible options, such as maternity leave.

Ten percent of public submissions identified 'the lack of quality part time positions' as an obstacle impeding further progress towards equal employment opportunity, and 28 percent identified 'inflexible working conditions' as an obstacle. Inflexible working conditions was most commonly identified as a barrier by union public submissions, at 56 percent (5 out of 9 submissions), with the next highest prevalence at only 37 percent (7 of 19) by peak body submissions. There were no significant differences across submission source categories in the identification of the quality, part time roles barrier.

Women returning to work after maternity leave are still experiencing great difficulties if they want, or need, to return to work on fewer hours than they were working before they took maternity leave

(Submission, Union)

[ top ]

A public submission from the Finsia made the following observation: 'Finsia found that the proportion of women working in the finance industry declines much more sharply after age 45, suggesting a structural impediment within the finance sector to re-employing women post child-bearing.'

Not all submissions held the view that inflexible work arrangements represented a barrier for women.

Inflexibility at the workplace and in working hours is unlikely to be a key driver of demands on workers with family responsibilities...;if employers are to be 'coaxed' into changing their employment profiles to remove male - female labour market characteristics (more men using flexible work provisions or spending more time out of the workforce, for example) considerable adverse labour market intervention will be required, with attendant costs.'

(Submission, Australian Federation of Employers and Industries)

The Adelaide and Melbourne roundtables highlighted that many available, part-time positions are to be found in the less valued, lower paid occupations, in which women end up if they require a flexible working arrangement. They also highlighted the lack of structural initiatives available to assist those women planning transition to flexible work arrangements, resulting in poor planning or inefficient use of the positions. There was discussion in Adelaide of the prevailing perception that senior positions are not able to be carried out under flexible arrangements, and of how part-time arrangements tend to result in a full week of work being completed within the part-time hours.

[ top ]

The Brisbane roundtable discussed the reluctance of organisations to consider how roles, and in particular professional roles, can be undertaken more flexibly, including accommodating school hours.

Sydney roundtable discussions highlighted the importance of providing flexible work arrangements for female workers with a disability.

Reporting organisation survey respondents identified the 'Lack of quality part-time positions' as the third most highly ranked challenge to reporting organisations achieving equal employment opportunity for women and 'Inflexible working conditions' as the fifth most highly ranked challenge.

There was some differentiation in identification of these challenges across industry type, with respondents from the Accommodation and Food Services and the Education and Training industries ranking these challenges significantly higher than reporting organisation survey respondents from the Mining, Manufacturing, Financial and Insurance, Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services industries.

The difficulty of this barrier was also discussed by reporting organisation survey respondents through their free text responses, including in relation to flexible arrangements in predominantly female workforces.

With a workforce that is 80 percent female, it is not always possible to accommodate all requests for flexible working conditions (despite our very best efforts)

(reporting organisation survey respondent)

Of those respondents to the employee survey who indicated that women do not have equal employment opportunity in their workplace, 43 percent identified the 'Lack of quality part-time positions' as a key challenge and 30 percent identified 'Inflexible working conditions'. Responses varied somewhat according to the type of position held by the respondent, where respondents in part-time positions identified the 'Lack of quality part-time positions' as a key challenge more frequently than full-time employee respondents.

[ top ]

Employee survey respondents also observed the importance of senior roles and part-time positions.

Supporting and mentoring women into senior roles, as well as ensuring that part-time work really is part-time, not full-time work for less pay in fewer days

(employee survey respondent)

Some of the free text responses in the employee surveys tended to be anecdotal, with respondents often reflecting on their own workplace experiences when discussing their opinions of this issue.

I have found applying for more senior positions difficult due to the increased hours and travel expected. My role as a mother is not recognised in this context. This is particularly difficult for single parents who require flexibility around hours of work, [and the] ability to work from home to progress in their careers

(employee survey respondent)

Culture, attitudes and of flexible work arrangements

An interview with Dr Alex Birrell considered how culture and attitudes impact on flexible work arrangements.

It is rarely the case that the husband will make the choice to reduce his work hours. And society would find a man making this decision 'unusual' and 'a bit soft'.

(Interview, Dr Alex Birrell)

[ top ]

4.2.4 Lower pay and the undervaluing of women's work

The consultation process found broad discussion of lower pay and the undervaluation of women's work as a barrier to achieving equal employment opportunity. This included views that traditionally female-dominated industries are undervalued and underpaid, that women are more likely to undertake unpaid work that is not reflected in economic productivity figures and that pay inequality impacts on perceptions of women and their ability to achieve equal opportunity.

Pay inequity

Pay inequity was identified as an issue by 30 percent of public submissions, and was the second most prevalent barrier listed. Almost half (46 percent) of community organisation submissions identified this as a key barrier.

Many tasks and so called soft skills such as communication, decision-making and pastoral care are undervalued and unrecognised as a work skill...;Women's skills are valued and paid less.

(Submission, Community and Public Sector Union - State Public Services Federation Group)

Roundtable participants noted that a lack of transparency about pay levels made it hard for female workers to track their progress compared with male colleagues. The Sydney roundtable observed that significant numbers of women work in underpaid and undervalued roles and that particular protection of women in these roles through regulation was needed.

One interviewee made the point that pay is used to perpetuate traditional ideas of the 'ideal worker' and that the lure of pay rises and bonuses reinforces the need to work longer hours. Given that many women have caring roles that do not allow them to work longer hours, this limits their ability to achieve pay parity or progression.

[ top ]

Another interviewee indicated that it was unnecessary, and possibly dangerous, to intervene in the market to achieve pay parity.

Attempts at 'equalising' pay across different industries and occupations; this is a diversion from the real issue. It only leads to long drawn out debates over how to value work, debates which are essentially meaningless, at least in industries which are exposed to market forces - in these industries it is consumers that determine the value of work. Tampering with market forces will not have a positive effect on business competitiveness or the economy, and indeed the effects can be damaging.

(Interview, Professor Mark Wooden )

Surveyed reporting organisations did not nominate lower pay and undervaluing of women's work as a significant challenge to achieving EEO, where it ranked seventh of the nine challenges identified.

In contrast to the survey of reporting organisations, employee survey respondents reported pay inequity as the third most significant barrier for women's achievement of equal employment opportunity. Respondents from larger organisations ranked this barrier as less significant than respondents from smaller organisations. Pay inequity was identified by 80 percent (20 out of 25) of respondents from organisations with under 20 employees, by 48 percent (15 out of 31) of respondents from organisations with between 20 to 99 employees, by 39 percent (24 out of 62) of respondents from organisations with between 100 to 499 and by 33 percent (48 out of 147) of respondents from organisations with more than 500 employees.

[ top ]

'Lower pay and the undervaluing of women's work' was identified as a challenge by a greater number of employees from private sector organisations (53 percent) than employees from public sector organisations (30 percent). This difference was not as great for other challenges identified.

Pay inequity was also identified by a greater proportion of employee survey respondents from Cultural and Recreational Services (five out of the six respondents), from Construction (five out of the six respondents) and from Manufacturing (four out of the five respondents) relative to respondents from the Government, Administration and Defence industry.

Undervaluing of caring roles and work in female-dominated industries

Interviewees raised concerns that unpaid work, including caring roles at home, are overlooked in women's workplace participation and remuneration equity. Also raised through the reporting organisation survey was the perception that many women undertake employment in caring industries such as health and education where they are poorly remunerated for these roles.

There is still a distinct undervaluing of the types of work that are primarily done by women (child care, community services, nursing / caring etc)

(reporting organisation survey respondent)

..Women's part time participation in the work force because of carer's responsibilities needs to be valued more highly

(employee survey respondent)

[ top ]

4.2.5 Bias in recruitment and selection

Recruitment and selection have been identified as barriers to achieving equal employment opportunity for women. The criteria used in recruitment and selection was highlighted as the key factor contributing to this barrier, where definitions of 'merit' can often include male-dominant characteristics, or where 'merit' is assessed by individuals who are biased towards certain characteristics.

Recruitment bias

Responses to the public submission process identified difficulty in recruiting women as a barrier to achieving equal opportunity, with five percent of submissions identifying this as an obstacle.

Public submissions also raised specific concerns about bias in recruitment and selection, including the use of selection criteria that either result in discrimination towards female applicants or do not value women's skills. It was further identified that the wording of job advertisements could exclude or deter female applicants. A lack of transparency in recruitment processes was also identified as a barrier.

Roundtable participants discussed a number of issues that may have an impact on recruitment of women, including a lack of awareness and understanding in human resources personnel of equal opportunity issues. The use of selection criteria that disadvantage women was also seen as a key barrier by participants.

The Melbourne roundtable discussed the inadequacy of having what they described as a 'token' female representative on interview panels, rather than genuine, balanced representation. This roundtable also considered that women may be reluctant to apply for certain jobs because they lack the confidence to apply, or viewed failed applications as a more significant setback than their male counterparts.

[ top ]

'The ability to recruit women into the organisation' was the second highest ranked challenge to achieving equal employment opportunity by reporting organisation survey respondents.

The results of the reporting organisation survey indicate differences in the extent to which different industries perceive the ability to recruit women into an organisation as a challenge. Reporting organisation respondents from the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing; Construction; Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services; Manufacturing; Mining; Public Administration; and Safety, Transport, Postal and Warehousing' and Wholesale trade industries ranked the ability to recruit women as the first or second most significant challenge. In contrast to this, the Arts and Recreation Services; Education and Training; Financial and Insurance Services; Health Care and Social Assistance; Information, Media and Telecommunications industries identified this challenge as a less significant problem.

Employee survey results show an inverse relationship between organisational size and the extent to which employees view the 'retention of women within the organisation' as a challenge to achieving equal employment opportunity for women. Employees from larger organisations more frequently cited this as a challenge compared to employees from smaller organisations.

Responses to the employee survey also identified that there may be unconscious bias in selection processes if interview panels are not gender balanced, and that common recruitment practices did not support decisions based on an objective demonstration of capacity.

[ top ]

4.2.6 Difficulty attracting women into male dominated industries - industry segregation

Through the consultation activities, difficulties in attracting women into male-dominated industries was identified as a challenge to achieving equal employment opportunity for women. The issues these responses primarily focused on included workplace culture in such industries, which deterred women from entering, fewer women pursuing studies in areas necessary to enter these industries and the type and location of work not being attractive to women.

Whilst female participation has continually risen (compare this to relatively stable participation rates of males), there are some sectors of the economy that cannot attract female workers. There appears to be industries that have difficulties in attracting women to their workforce (ie. agricultural industries, construction, mining, transport and storage) and these employers have concerns about the obligations placed on them. No matter how much effort industries put into attracting females into certain occupations/sectors, this fact remains constant from year to year. The annual reporting/workplace plan obligations on a firm does very little to overcome this challenge

(Submission, Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry)

Cultural issues impacting on women's employment in male-dominated industries

The Chamber of Commerce & Industry Queensland (CCIQ) discussed this barrier in its public submission:

Many of the barriers that exist around equal employment opportunities for women in the workplace stem from cultural and social barriers that are almost impossible for employers to change. For example, there are some industries that genuinely struggle to attract female applications for positions

(Submission, Chamber of Commerce and Industry Queensland)

[ top ]

Some public submissions noted that there are cultural issues in some industries that may contribute to the lack of women in those workplaces.

A main barrier...;is the lack of representation of women in certain industries, and the resulting male dominated cultures that develop with a lack of women in those industries.

(Submission, Australian Industry Group)

It may not be readily accepted, but intimidation may be a factor limiting our industry's ability to achieve more equal employment opportunities for females on sites

(Submission, John Holland Group)

The Brisbane roundtable considered this to be a particular issue for Australia, citing that there are still a large number of male-dominated industries in existence, particularly in regional areas. The Perth roundtable discussed the discrimination and harassment experienced by women when first entering these environments, and the further difficulties in overcoming this barrier. In Adelaide, participants also discussed how these industries tend to lack flexible work arrangements, presenting an even greater barrier for women integrating into these industries.

Some respondents to the reporting organisation survey noted that they considered that women were under-represented in some industries because of the type or location of work. Other employers attributed this to an organisational or industry culture that is not welcoming of women. It was also suggested that the lack of part-time positions available to women returning from maternity leave in some fields may deter women from entering.

The employee survey indicated that women may be reluctant to enter male-dominated industries because there is a lack of senior women in those areas to support and mentor other women. The negative attitude of men within these industries was also put forward as a factor that may impact on the number of women in those industries.

[ top ]

Educational issues impacting on women's employment in male-dominated industries

Some respondents considered that women may be reluctant to pursue study leading to male-dominated industry employment because it is not encouraged or because they think that their post-educational opportunities will be restricted. It was suggested through the submission process that women are not encouraged to undertake certain subjects or work in certain fields during high school and that this impacts the pool of graduates that firms within typically male-dominated industries are able to draw from.

Several reporting organisations commented on this issue in the reporting organisation survey through free text responses.

The overall pool of women in our industry is small and this root cause issue needs addressing

(reporting organisation survey respondent)

..senior roles in my organisation require an Engineering degree. Very few women complete these kinds of degrees and even fewer stay in the industry and build their career

(reporting organisation survey respondent)

[ top ]

4.2.7 Less access to training and promotional opportunities

The consultation process identified that inequitable access to training and promotional opportunities is a barrier to achieving equal opportunity outcomes. Particular factors that were noted as contributing to this barrier included women in part-time work not receiving development and promotional opportunities, women feeling less comfortable or being blocked from participating in development opportunities, especially in male-dominated workplaces, and family commitments reducing women's ability to network.

The issue was discussed in a number of public submissions received. One key theme centred on part-time employees receiving fewer training and development opportunities, which had an overall impact on equal opportunity because many part-time workers are female. Other issues raised include the impact of gender inequity in senior positions on development and promotion of female employees and the impact of motherhood on access to these opportunities.

The impact of motherhood on career development was discussed in the public submission by Women on Boards and the National Foundation for Australian Women:

A woman's fertility is finite and typically coincides almost exactly with her most productive years in the workforce - those same years that her male peers are building organisational and external professional relationships, upgrading qualifications and cultivating the experience that will position their careers for future promotion and advancement.

(Submission, Women on Boards and the National Foundation for Australian Women)

Part-time and casual employment rates were also discussed by a submission from an academic source:

Concentration in part-time and casual employment has a number of pay equity implications, including lower access to training and more limited opportunities for advancement and career development than full-time employees'.

(Submission, Academic)

The Brisbane roundtable discussed the issue of unequal education and training opportunities in relation to Indigenous women and women in regional areas. They considered the issue as being attributable to the types of industries available in these areas as well as the lack of education for these women, particularly at a tertiary level.

[ top ]

This issue was discussed in detail at the Melbourne roundtable where participants noted that the ability to achieve internal promotion within an organisation is not seen as equal for women when there is gender imbalance at the senior management level. There was a discussion about promotional opportunities being diminished by reduced opportunities, actual exclusion of women from some workplace experiences, and the reluctance of some women to be the only female in attendance.

The results of the reporting organisation survey show a relatively small proportion of employers perceive 'unequal access to training and development' to be a challenge to reporting organisations achieving equal employment opportunity for women. The Healthcare and Social Assistance industry registered the highest level of concern about this issue. The vast majority of reporting organisation respondents from other industries did not cite this as a challenge at all.

Employees also raised concerns about inequitable access to training and development through the employee survey. Sixty-eight percent of employee respondents considered that equal access to training and development was an important factor supporting and contributing to equal opportunity in their workplace.

Analysis of the employee survey also shows an inverse relationship between the extent to which 'unequal access to training and development' is perceived to be a challenge and the size of the organisation, such that employees from larger organisations identified this barrier less frequently than employees from smaller organisations.

This barrier was also noted within the free text section of employee surveys, with barriers such as the following noted:

...;In professional services it is important to network beyond work hours which is difficult with women who have dependants.'

(employee survey respondent).

Cultural factors behind this barrier were also raised, where respondents discussed how, 'despite our best efforts and for reasons that have nothing to do with workplace policies, it is almost always the women who reduce their working hours and choose not to apply for promotions because of family responsibilities and rarely their husbands' (employee survey respondent).

[ top ]