As noted in Chapter 2, the field of relationship education has grown in diversity and scope over a number of years. There is potentially a wide range of formalised opportunities for people wishing to learn more about relationships and how they might be maintained across the lifecycle. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the provision of relationship education services using the data collected from the sample of service providers described in Chapter 3.
4.1 Type of providers and their programs
Organisations submitting programs for inclusion in the research were approximately evenly divided between those providers that were labelled as secular and those that had some connection with a faith tradition (Table 4.1). The secular providers were a diverse group consisting of a range of community-based and independent organisations. Those providers connected with a faith tradition comprised three sub groupings:
- providers who were part of larger welfare organisations attached to the mainstream faith traditions (designated as 'church-affiliated');
- providers who were connected to a specific church or parish (designated 'church-based'); and
- providers who were connected with an international movement that had links to a faith tradition (these are also referred to a 'church-based' in subsequent parts of this chapter).
The distinctions between the three groups of providers linked to faith traditions into two broad groups is important because each of these groups of providers operate in distinctive environments, with potentially different sets of factors affecting the types of relationship education services they offer. Church-affiliated providers operating out of welfare organisations attached to the mainstream faith traditions are usually recipients of government funding and are therefore subject to the quality assurance and accountability requirements of their funding bodies. In these instances relationship education services are often only one component of a raft of services (for example, employment, disabilities, aged care, youth services) offered to the community. They can also operate out of several locations and may offer services in partnership with other organisations.
Table 4.1: Type of Provider
| Type of Provider |
Frequency |
Percentage |
| Secular |
116 |
52.7 |
| Church / parish based |
11 |
5.0 |
| Church-based international organisation |
9 |
4.1 |
| Church-affiliated |
84 |
38.2 |
| Total number of programs |
220 |
100 |
Relationship education services provided from a parish or church base are usually directed at the membership of the church /parish or its immediate community. These programs are often developed and maintained through the initiative and drive of local clergy and members of the congregation. These programs can be highly fluid, with service provision being maintained as long as the church membership believes a need exists or personnel are available to staff the service. This fluidity in response to local needs necessarily means that these programs can be difficult to locate and can often be little known outside of the community or congregation in which they are located. Volunteers staff many of these services and issues relating to quality control and accountability are addressed informally (if at all) and usually only in response to direct feedback from clients who have used the service.
Service providers connected with international movements such as Marriage Encounter, Engaged Encounter or Couples for Marriage Enrichment operate out of frameworks for service provision that are developed internationally. Curricula are usually structured and designed to accommodate the diverse cultural settings in which it might be applied. These programs often serve or support an evangelical or outreach function within a faith tradition and are staffed by volunteers and, in some instances, clergy. Many of the initiatives to promote these international movements are grounded in individual parishes and churches and often form a component of their outreach activities.
Four providers denoted themselves as private businesses and 16 were based in government organisations. All remaining organisations described themselves as 'community-based' organisations. The majority of providers were classified as not for profit (97%).
4.2 Type of program
Of the 220 programs reported by providers 56 were described as 'embedded programs'. That is, the relationship education components reported by providers form part of a larger program. For ease of reference, this form of program is referred to in text as 'embedded', while the remainder of programs are referred to 'mainstream'. Table 4.2 shows the distribution of embedded and mainstream programs by type of service provider. Secular providers offer relationship education services that are embedded in other service activities more frequently than any other type of provider. This is perhaps partly reflective of the previously unacknowledged sites where relationship education services might form a small component of other human service activities such as aged care and health care services.
Table 4.2: Type of program by type of provider
| Type of provider |
Mainstream Programs
n % |
Embedded Programs
n % |
Total
n % |
| Secular |
73 62.9 |
43 37.1 |
116 100 |
| Church/parish based |
11 100 |
- |
11 100 |
| Church-based international |
8 88.9 |
1 11.1 |
9 100 |
| Church-affiliated |
72 85.7 |
12 14.3 |
84 100 |
| Totals |
164 |
56 |
220 |
4.3 Location of service delivery
Generally information was provided for many more metropolitan programs compared to rural, however in Queensland the trend is quite obviously different (Table 4.3). This is thought to be due to the fact that Brisbane-based agencies often provide services in rural communities. The coding for program location was based on where the program took place rather than where it originated. In addition, two large Brisbane-based agencies declined participation or failed to return questionnaires. These data point to the importance of ensuring that generalisations made in relation to all relationship education services from this study are undertaken with some caution and take into account the nature of the respondents and the construction of the sample used for this study.
Table 4.3: Location of programs
| Location |
Frequency |
Percentage |
SA Metropolitan
SA Rural
SA Both |
26
8
17 |
11.8
3.6
7.7 |
TAS Metropolitan
TAS Rural
TAS Both |
3
1
1 |
1.4
0.5
0.5 |
NSW Metropolitan
NSW Rural
NSW Both |
12
18
8 |
5.5
8.2
3.6 |
| ACT |
7 |
3.2 |
QLD Metropolitan
QLD Rural
QLD Both |
2
23
1 |
0.9
10.5
0.5 |
NT Rural
NT Both |
1
2 |
0.5
0.9 |
WA Metropolitan
WA Rural
WA Both |
30
7
2 |
13.6
3.2
0.9 |
VIC Metropolitan
VIC Rural
VIC Both |
27
12
2 |
12.3
5.5
0.9 |
| Nationwide |
10 |
4.5 |
| Total number of programs |
220 |
100 |
Different types of providers showed some geographic diversity in relation to the location of their services (Table 4.4). Programs offered by secular providers were more likely to be located in exclusively metropolitan (33%) areas than rural areas (15%). Conversely, programs offered by church-affiliated providers were more likely to be offered exclusively in rural (16%) than metropolitan locations (11%). Nationwide programs also tend to be offered by church-affiliated providers.
Mainstream programs were somewhat more likely to be offered in metropolitan (37%) compared to rural areas (24%). Almost two thirds of all programs offered in both rural and metropolitan areas were mainstream programs (Table 4.5).
Table 4.4: Provider type by location of service delivery
| Provider Type |
Metropolitan
n % |
Rural
n % |
Both metropolitan and rural
n % |
Nationwide
n % |
Totals
n % |
| Secular |
72 32.7 |
32 14.5 |
11 5.0 |
1 0.5 |
116 52.7 |
| Church-based |
11 5.0 |
4 1.8 |
2 0.9 |
3 1.4 |
20 9.1 |
| Church-affiliated |
24 10.9 |
34 15.5 |
20 9.1 |
6 2.7 |
84 38.2 |
| Totals |
107 48.6 |
70 31.8 |
33 15 |
10 4.5 |
220 100 |
Table 4.5: Program type by location
| Provider Type |
Metropolitan
n % |
Rural
n % |
Both metropolitan and rural
n % |
Nationwide
n % |
Totals
n % |
| Mainstream |
82 37.3 |
53 24.1 |
21 9.5 |
8 3.6 |
164 74.5 |
| Embedded |
25 11.4 |
17 7.7 |
12 5.5 |
2 0.9 |
56 25.5 |
| Totals |
107 48.7 |
70 31.8 |
33 15.0 |
10 4.5 |
220 100 |
4.4 Organisation of programs
Patterns of attendance showed some degree of diversity. Programs offered by secular providers tended to be either short (lasting less than 2 hours) or longer (from 12 to over 17 hours) in length. Church-affiliated programs, on average, consisted of 12 – 16 hours of contact time.
In terms of the number of contact hours, metropolitan programs tended to show a greater diversity than those offered in rural locations (Table 4.6). However, very long programs (more than 17 hours) were located in both metropolitan and rural locations.
Table 4.6: Length of program by location of program
Length of program
(hours) |
Metropolitan
n % |
Rural
n % |
Both metropolitan and rural
n % |
Nationwide
n % |
Totals
n % |
| 1 – 7.5 |
33 15.0 |
14 6.4 |
3 1.4 |
2 0.9 |
52 23.6 |
| 8 - 11 |
18 8.2 |
23 10.4 |
8 3.6 |
1 0.4 |
50 22.7 |
| 12 - 16 |
36 16.4 |
16 7.3 |
10 4.5 |
2 0.9 |
64 29.1 |
| 17 + |
20 9.1 |
17 7.7 |
12 5.5 |
5 2.3 |
54 24.5 |
| Totals |
107 48.7 |
70 31.8 |
33 15.0 |
10 4.5 |
220 100 |
In terms of the number of sessions per program, over two thirds of programs were divided into between 1 and 7 sessions (Table 4.7). Metropolitan programs were likely to contain one, two or three sessions (37%) or between 4 and 7 sessions (34%). Rural programs were more likely to contain between 4 and 7 sessions (48%).
Table 4.7: Number of sessions by location of program
| Number of sessions |
Metropolitan
n % |
Rural
n % |
Both Metropolitan and Rural
n % |
Nationwide
n % |
Totals*
n % |
| 1 - 3 |
40 18.3 |
17 7.8 |
7 3.2 |
2 0.9 |
66 30.1 |
| 4 - 7 |
36 16.4 |
33 15.1 |
14 6.4 |
2 0.9 |
85 38.8 |
| 8 - 10 |
20 9.1 |
11 5 .0 |
5 2.3 |
4 1.8 |
40 18.3 |
| 11 + |
11 5.0 |
8 3.6 |
7 3.2 |
2 0.9 |
28 12.8 |
| Totals |
107 48.9 |
69 31.5 |
33 15.1 |
10 4.5 |
219 100 |
* 1 missing observation
Respondents provided data on the cost of programs to participants by either stating the cost of the program per couple or per individual. Cost details per couple were made available for 95 programs while details of cost per individual were provided for 78 programs. Thirty-nine percent of programs offered by secular providers to
couples cost between $40 and $70. Church-affiliated programs for
couples have costs distributed across a broad range from $10 to over $140 per program (Table 4.8). Costs for programs offered by secular providers per
individual were distributed across a broad range from $10 to more than $70. Costs per
individual for programs offered by church-affiliated programs tended towards the higher end of the cost range (Table 4.9).
Table 4.8: Cost of programs for couples by provider type
| Cost |
Secular
n % |
Church-based
n % |
Church-affiliated
n % |
| $10 - 35 |
3 9.1 |
1 8.3 |
11 22.0 |
| $40 - 75 |
13 39.4 |
4 33.3 |
4 8.0 |
| $80 - 100 |
7 21.2 |
1 8.3 |
12 24.0 |
| 110 - 130 |
6 18.2 |
4 33.3 |
11 22.0 |
| $140 + |
4 12.1 |
2 16.7 |
12 24.0 |
| Total |
33 100 |
12 100 |
50 100 |
Table 4.9: Cost of programs for individuals by provider type
| Cost |
Secular
n % |
Church-based
n % |
Church-affiliated
n % |
| $10 - 35 |
15 35.7 |
3 50.0 |
7 23.3 |
| $40 - 66 |
14 33.3 |
1 16.7 |
11 36.7 |
| $70 + |
13 31.0 |
2 33.3 |
12 40.0 |
| Total |
42 100 |
6 100 |
30 100 |
The cost of programs offered to
couples in the metropolitan areas tended to fall into one of two price brackets - $40 - $75 and $110 - $132.
Couple programs in rural settings were in the range $80 -$100. Metropolitan programs tended to charge
individuals $70 or more for a service, while rural programs for individuals, on average, fell into the range of $40 - $66 (Table 4.10 and Table 4.11). Fifty-seven percent of providers offer some form of fee assistance to course participants.
Table 4.10: Cost of programs for couples by program location
| Cost |
Metropolitan
n % |
Rural
n % |
Both metro & rural
n % |
Nationwide
n % |
| $10 - 35 |
5 8.9 |
5 17.9 |
4 26.7 |
1 14.3 |
| $40 - 75 |
14 31.1 |
5 17.9 |
- - |
2 28.6 |
| $80 - 100 |
5 8.9 |
10 35.7 |
5 33.3 |
- - |
| 110 - 130 |
13 28.9 |
5 17.9 |
3 20.0 |
- - |
| $140 + |
8 17.8 |
3 10.7 |
3 20.0 |
4 57.1 |
| Total |
45 100 |
28 100 |
15 100 |
7 100.0 |
Table 4.11: Cost of programs for individuals by program location
| Cost |
Metropolitan
n % |
Rural
n % |
Both metro & rural
n % |
Nationwide
n % |
| $10 - 35 |
14 31.8 |
7 30.4 |
3 30.0 |
1 100 |
| $40 - 66 |
10 22.7 |
12 52.2 |
4 40.0 |
- |
| $70 + |
20 45.5 |
4 17.4 |
3 30.0 |
- |
| Total |
44 100 |
23 100 |
10 100 |
1 100 |
4.5 Target groups
Relationship education programs cater for very diverse client groups. A number of analyses illustrate the ways in which these target groups are catered for across various categories of program type, provider and geographic location. Target groups most catered for include couples (committed, married, pre-marriage and re-marriage), parents and parents-to-be and single people seeking a partner (Table 4.12). Target groups for which there are apparently few programs include those for individuals with a disability, the general public, separated or divorced individuals and programs provided in the workplace.
Table 4.12: Target groups
| Target group* |
Number of courses that address target group* |
Percentage of courses addressing target group |
| Adolescents out of school settings |
38 |
17.4 |
| Adolescents in school settings |
24 |
11.0 |
| Culturally, linguistically diverse groups |
38 |
17.4 |
| Committed couples |
88 |
40.3 |
| Couples where one is ill |
31 |
14.2 |
| Couples where one or both has a disability (intellectual/physical) |
30 |
13.8 |
| Gay or lesbian couples |
36 |
16.5 |
| Individuals with a disability |
5 |
2.3 |
| Indigenous couples or groups |
34 |
15.6 |
| General public / individuals |
13 |
6.0 |
| Married couples |
81 |
37.2 |
| Men only |
35 |
16.1 |
| Other target groups |
5 |
2.3 |
| Parents |
68 |
31.2 |
| Parents to be |
49 |
22.5 |
| Pre-marital couples |
73 |
33.5 |
| Prisoners or their partners |
26 |
11.9 |
| Couples planning re-marriage |
64 |
29.4 |
| Retired / mature aged |
48 |
22.0 |
| Separated or divorced individuals |
9 |
4.1 |
| Single people seeking a partner |
46 |
21.1 |
| Women only |
38 |
17.4 |
| Programs in the workplace |
17 |
7.8 |
* Programs could address more than one target group
Table 4.13 illustrates the ways in which specific target groups are catered for in either mainstream or embedded programs. These data suggest that relationship issues for some specific target groups may often be embedded in programs that address wider issues (for example, programs for men and women only, parents and parents-to-be, couples where one or both have an illness or disability, indigenous couples and groups).
Secular and church-affiliated providers reported that their service provision addressed the needs of a number of target groups (Table 4.14). These data are illustrative of the potential for particular types of providers to develop 'niche' markets in relation to particular target groups. It is important to note that the patterns of service provision to target groups addressed by particular providers are shaped by a number of factors including
inter alia funding opportunities, history of service provision, the mission and values orientation of the provider.
Table 4.15 shows the distribution of groups across geographical location. These data once again confirm the apparently uneven distribution of programs across locations. This is particularly evident for programs addressing issues for persons from culturally and linguistically diverse groups, couples where one is ill, couples where one or both suffer a disability (intellectual or physical), individuals with a disability, gay and lesbian couples, the general public / individuals, retired and mature aged couples and single people seeking a partner.
Table 4.13 Target group by type of program
| Target group* |
Percentage of mainstream programs addressing target group |
Percentage of embedded programs addressing target group |
| Adolescents out of school settings |
3.8 |
5.8 |
| Adolescents in school settings |
2.0 |
4.8 |
| Culturally, linguistically diverse groups |
4.5 |
3.4 |
| Committed couples |
10.7 |
4.8 |
| Couples where one is ill |
3.0 |
4.8 |
| Couples where one or both has a disability (intellectual / physical) |
3.0 |
4.3 |
| Gay or lesbian couples |
4.2 |
3.4 |
| General public / couples |
0.4 |
0.5 |
| Individuals with a disability |
0.6 |
0.5 |
| Indigenous couples or groups |
3.5 |
4.8 |
| General public / individuals |
1.4 |
1.4 |
| Married couples |
9.5 |
7.2 |
| Men only |
2.9 |
7.2 |
| Other target groups |
0.6 |
0.5 |
| Parents |
6.9 |
9.7 |
| Parents to be |
5.2 |
6.3 |
| Pre-marital couples |
9.7 |
2.9 |
| Prisoners or their partners |
2.5 |
4.3 |
| Individuals with mental illness |
0.4 |
0.5 |
| Couples planning re-marriage |
7.4 |
6.3 |
| Retired / mature aged |
5.9 |
3.4 |
| Separated or divorced individuals |
1.0 |
1.0 |
| Single people seeking a partner |
5.9 |
2.4 |
| Women only |
2.7 |
9.2 |
| Programs in the workplace |
2.3 |
0.5 |
* Programs could address more than one target group
Table 4.14 Target groups by type of service provider
| Target group* |
Percentage of secular providers addressing target group |
Percentage of church-based providers addressing target group |
Percentage of church-affiliated providers addressing target group |
| Adolescents out of school settings |
27.2 |
5.0 |
7.1 |
| Adolescents in school settings |
17.5 |
0 |
4.8 |
| Culturally, linguistically diverse groups |
20.2 |
0 |
17.9 |
| Committed couples |
32.5 |
40.0 |
46.4 |
| Couples where one is ill |
18.4 |
5.0 |
10.7 |
| Couples where one or both has a disability (intellectual / physical) |
17.5 |
0 |
11.9 |
| Gay or lesbian couples |
23.7 |
0 |
10.7 |
| General public / couples |
2.6 |
0 |
1.2 |
| Individuals with a disability |
3.5 |
0 |
1.2 |
| Indigenous couples or groups |
18.4 |
10.0 |
13.1 |
| General public / individuals |
6.1 |
0 |
7.1 |
| Married couples |
33.3 |
45.0 |
40.5 |
| Men only |
19.3 |
0 |
15.5 |
| Other target groups |
4.4 |
0 |
0 |
| Parents |
33.3 |
15.0 |
32.1 |
| Parents to be |
25.4 |
15.0 |
20.2 |
| Pre-marital couples |
22.8 |
70.0 |
39.3 |
| Prisoners or their partners |
18.4 |
0 |
6.0 |
| Couples planning re-marriage |
24.6 |
40.0 |
33.3 |
| Retired / mature aged |
21.9 |
35.0 |
19.0 |
| Separated or divorced individuals |
6.1 |
0 |
2.4 |
| Single people seeking a partner |
24.5 |
30.0 |
13.1 |
| Women only |
28.9 |
0 |
6.0 |
| Programs in the workplace |
6.1 |
10.0 |
9.5 |
* Programs could address more than one target group
Table 4.15: Target groups by geographical location of services
| Target group* |
Percentage of programs offered in metropolitan areas addressing target group |
Percentage of programs offered in rural areas addressing target group |
Percentage of programs offered in both rural and metropolitan areas addressing target group |
Percentage of programs offered nation wide addressing target group |
| Adolescents out of school settings |
19.0 |
22.9 |
3.0 |
10.0 |
| Adolescents in school settings |
12.4 |
14.3 |
3.0 |
0 |
| Culturally, linguistically diverse groups |
21.9 |
8.6 |
18.2 |
30.0 |
| Committed couples |
41.0 |
30.0 |
39.4 |
70.0 |
| Couples where one is ill |
15.2 |
7.1 |
15.2 |
50.0 |
| Couples where one or both has a disability (intellectual / physical) |
2.9 |
1.4 |
0 |
0 |
| Gay or lesbian couples |
23.8 |
12.9 |
6.1 |
0 |
| General public / couples |
2.9 |
1.4 |
0 |
0 |
| Individuals with a disability |
1.9 |
4.3 |
0 |
0 |
| Indigenous couples or groups |
14.3 |
11.4 |
18.2 |
5.0.0 |
| General public / individuals |
6.7 |
7.1 |
3.0 |
0 |
| Married couples |
37.1 |
32.9 |
36.4 |
70.0 |
| Men only |
16.2 |
20.0 |
12.1 |
0 |
| Other target groups |
2.9 |
2.9 |
0 |
0 |
| Parents |
31.4 |
37.1 |
15.2 |
40.0 |
| Parents to be |
25.7 |
21.4 |
9.1 |
40.0 |
| Pre-marital couples |
34.3 |
31.4 |
30.3 |
50.0 |
| Prisoners or their partners |
13.3 |
11.4 |
12.1 |
0 |
| Couples planning re-marriage |
28.6 |
30.0 |
24.2 |
50.0 |
| Retired / mature aged |
26.7 |
12.9 |
18.2 |
50.0 |
| Separated or divorced individuals |
3.8 |
4.3 |
6.1 |
0 |
| Single people seeking a partner |
28.6 |
14.3 |
12.1 |
20.0 |
| Women only |
20.0 |
21.4 |
6.1 |
0 |
| Programs in the workplace |
7.6 |
8.6 |
0 |
30.0 |
* Programs could address more than one target group
Data in these four tables suggest that there are some groups in the community for whom services are rather scarce. For example, Table 4.15 shows that in this sample of programs fewer than three per cent of mainstream programs are targeted towards adolescents out of school settings, members of the general public, individuals with a disability or mental illness, men only, prisoners or their partners, separated or divorced individuals, women only, or programs in employment settings. However given the small size and somewhat restricted nature of the sample it is possible that more of these services exist - they were simply not captured by the sampling process. It is clear from Table 4.15 that some relationship education of relevance to some of these groups is embedded within the framework of other programs.
4.6 Program development practices
Eighty four percent of programs reported in the study were developed in-house (Table 4.16). 41% of programs were based on existing materials. Eight percent of programs were developed by adapting commercially available programs. Approximately equal numbers of secular and church-affiliated providers used commercial programs as a basis for their service delivery.
Table 4.16: Program development practices by type of provider
| Program development practices* |
Secular
n |
Church-based
n |
Church-affiliated
n |
Total
n % |
| Developed in-house |
100 |
16 |
68 |
184 84 |
| Developed from existing materials |
45 |
8 |
37 |
90 42 |
| Developed based on adaptation of commercially available programs |
8 |
3 |
7 |
18 8.3 |
*Respondents could provide more than one answer
Fewer than 46% of programs were reported to undergo change over time in response to a range of factors. Of those providers who reported modifying their programs over time, by far the single most important driver of change was attributed to the requirements of the participants who attended the programs (Table 4.17). Changes on the basis of location or updated materials occurred as often in secular as church-affiliated programs. Changes driven by educators occurred more in programs connected with church-affiliated than secular providers. Conversely, secular providers cited participant needs as a more frequent driver for change than church-affiliated providers.
Table 4.17: Drivers for program change by provider type
| Driver of change* |
Secular
n |
Church-based
n |
Church-affiliated
n |
Totals
n % |
| Participant requirements |
59 |
8 |
39 |
106 49.5 |
| Educator |
8 |
6 |
16 |
30 14.0 |
| Location |
4 |
0 |
6 |
10 4.7 |
| Updated materials |
6 |
0 |
5 |
11 5.1 |
* Respondents could name more than one driver
4.7 Staffing requirements for programs
Paid staff were employed to deliver all but 15 programs included in the study. Volunteers were involved in the delivery of 54 programs. These data suggest that a number of programs are staffed by a combination of paid and volunteer staff. Secular programs were less likely to employ volunteer staff. The majority of programs (83% of secular and 80% of church-affiliated programs) were staffed by a maximum of 2 persons.
Two educators usually staffed services offered in the metropolitan areas, although a number of programs reported using up 14 educators to conduct a program. Programs offered in rural areas were also staffed with two educators but service providers using between one and eight educators per program were reported in some instances.
There is a strong emphasis on staff engaged in service provision to hold some type of formal qualifications to underpin their work. Ninety-one percent of providers reported that their educators had some form of qualification (Table 4.18).
Table 4.18: Training / qualifications needed by staff who conduct programs
| Training / Qualification* |
Number of responses |
Percentage of programs |
| Formal qualifications from an educational institution |
193 |
90.6 |
| In-house training |
146 |
68.5 |
| Training provided by another relationships education provider |
81 |
38.0 |
| Life experience |
154 |
72.3 |
* Respondents could provide more than one answer
A large proportion of educators working for all types of providers hold formal qualifications (Table 4.19). However, these data appear to suggest that in-house training and training by other relationships education providers were more often sources of qualified staff for church-based and church-affiliated providers. Similarly, life experience was cited as a qualification for program staff by a greater proportion of church-based and church-affiliated than secular providers.
Table 4.19: Training/ qualifications by type of provider
| Training / Qualification* |
Number of programs offered by secular providers requiring this qualification
n% |
Number of programs offered by church-based providers requiring this qualification
n% |
Number of programs offered by church-affiliated providers requiring this qualification
n% |
| Formal qualifications from an educational institution |
107 |
15 |
71 |
| In-house training |
66 |
15 |
65 |
| Training provided by another relationships education provider |
36 |
11 |
34 |
| Life experience |
67 |
19 |
68 |
* Respondents could provide more than one answer per program
All but three providers required that educators to undergo some form of on-going training or professional development (Table 4.20).
Table 4.20: On going training and development provided to educators
| Types of on-going training / supervision |
Number of responses* |
Percentage of programs |
| Regular supervision |
179 |
86.5 |
| Regular team meetings |
177 |
85.5 |
| State /national conferences |
139 |
67.1 |
| Training within own agency |
159 |
76.8 |
| Training with external agency |
85 |
41.1 |
| None |
3 |
1.4 |
* Respondents could provide multiple responses
Regular supervision (85%) and regular team meetings (84%) were common forms of on-going training and development for educators. Church-affiliated providers appear to place greater emphasis on the provision of regular supervision, but secular and church-affiliated providers differ little with regard to the provision of regular team meetings (Table 4.21). More church -based and church-affiliated providers use training in-house and attendance at state and national conferences as forms of on-going training and development for educators than do secular providers. On going development through the use of training with external agencies was also reported by a significant number of church-based providers.
Table 4.21: On-going training and development provided to educators by provider type
| Types of on-going training / development* |
Number of programs offered by secular providers requiring this form of training and development for educators
(N=113) |
Number of programs offered by church-based providers requiring this form of training and development for educators
(N=19) |
Number of programs offered by church-affiliated providers requiring this form of training and development for educators
(N=79) |
| Regular supervision |
90 |
14 |
75 |
| Regular team meetings |
93 |
17 |
67 |
| State /national conferences |
66 |
15 |
58 |
| Training within own agency |
78 |
17 |
64 |
| Training with external agency |
49 |
10 |
26 |
* Programs could require educators to undergo more than one form of education and training
4.8 Program learning outcomes
Programs reported having a wide range of learning outcomes. Nearly all programs (99%) listed 12 learning outcomes or less, with the mean number of learning outcomes being four. Approximately one third of these outcomes were cognitive – that is they focussed on developing knowledge and understanding about relationships (see Table 4.22). A further 31% listed outcomes that focussed on both cognitive and psychomotor (behavioural skills) development. Only two percent focussed exclusively on skills development, whilst nearly 10% listed learning outcomes across three domains including affective outcomes (that is focussing on the development of attitudes and values).
Table 4.22 Domains of learning expressed in learning outcomes
| Domains |
Frequency |
Percentage of all stated outcomes |
| Affective |
6 |
3.0 |
| Cognitive |
67 |
33.8 |
| Psychomotor |
4 |
2.0 |
| Affective / psychomotor |
2 |
1.0 |
| Cognitive / affective |
38 |
19.2 |
| Cognitive / psychomotor |
62 |
31.3 |
| Affective / cognitive / psychomotor |
19 |
9.6 |
| Missing (no learning outcomes stated) |
22 |
- |
Within each of the domains, the levels of learning expressed in the outcomes varied considerably (Table 4.23). Learning within the cognitive domain emphasised the gaining of factual knowledge, building understanding, applying information to new or unfamiliar situations, and analysis of particular aspects of relationships (for example analysis of communication styles). Learning outcomes within the psychomotor domain reflected levels of learning that ranged from learning small sub-parts of skills, reproducing skills according to guidelines provided within the program to participants being expected to routinely perform skills with minimal guidance. Similarly learning outcomes emphasising the development of attitudes and values covered a range of levels including those aimed at encouraging program participants to pay attention to particular sets of values (receptive) through to encouragement of the adoption and integration of particular sets of values into their normal ways of behaviour (normative).
Another measurement of the outcomes of programs can be gauged through an assessment of the risk and protective factors addressed through the program (Table 4.24). The most common protective factor addressed in programs was interpersonal support. This factor was also more likely to be addressed within programs delivered by secular providers than by church-affiliated providers (Table 4.25). Other protective factors were as likely to be addressed in programs provided by both secular and church-affiliated providers.
Parental divorce, violence in the family of origin, negative interactions, poor communication and conflict resolution skill, dysfunctional attitudes and beliefs were equally common issues in both secular and church-affiliated programs. Pre-marital cohabitation was more likely to be addressed within the context of church-affiliated than secular programs.
Table 4.23: Levels of learning expressed in learning outcomes across the three domains
| Domain and level of learning |
Number of learning outcomes* |
Percentage of cases |
Affective
- Receptive
- Attentive
- Conformative
- Possessive
- Normative
|
15
33
29
7
1 |
7.6
16.7
14.6
3.5
0.5 |
Cognitive
- Factual
- Understanding
- Application
- Analysis
- Synthesis
- Evaluation
|
98
122
60
65
5
4 |
49.5
61.6
30.3
32.8
2.5
2.0 |
Psychomotor
- Manipulation
- Reproduction
- Routinisation
|
51
35
8 |
25.8
17.7
4.0 |
* Programs could contain more than one learning outcome
Table 4.24: Risk and protective factors addressed in programs
| Factors |
Number of responses* |
Percentage of programs addressing factor |
Protective factors
- Friendship
- Interpersonal support
- Fun
- Commitment
- Sensuality
|
152
181
147
139
104 |
77.6
92.3
75.0
70.9
53.1 |
Risk factors
- Parental divorce
- Violence in family of origin
- Pre-marital cohabitation
- Negative couple interactions
- Poor communication/ conflict skills
- Dysfunctional attitudes / beliefs
|
47
87
30
151
178
155 |
25.0
46.3
16.0
80.3
94.7
82.4 |
* Programs addressed multiple risk and protective factors
Table 4.25: Risk and protective factors addressed by type of program provider
| Factors* |
Number of secular programs addressing this factor |
Number of church-based programs addressing this factor |
Number of church-affiliated programs addressing this factor |
| Protective factors |
|
|
|
| Friendship |
74 |
16 |
62 |
| Interpersonal support |
100 |
16 |
65 |
| Fun |
68 |
17 |
62 |
| Commitment |
62 |
17 |
60 |
| Sensuality |
44 |
16 |
44 |
|
|
|
|
| Risk factors |
|
|
|
| Parental divorce |
20 |
7 |
20 |
| Violence in family of origin |
41 |
10 |
36 |
| Pre-marital cohabitation |
8 |
9 |
13 |
| Negative couple interactions |
68 |
19 |
64 |
| Poor communication/conflict skills |
85 |
19 |
74 |
| Dysfunctional attitudes/beliefs |
75 |
16 |
64 |
* Programs could address more than one factor
4.9 Program content
Content focused on a range of issues with self awareness /self care, communication / conflict resolution and understanding relationships and family of origin being the most common content areas (Table 4.26)
Table 4.26: Program content
| Content |
Number of responses |
Percentage of programs that included this topic |
| Family of origin |
92 |
43.4 |
| Understanding relationships |
139 |
65.6 |
| Family Planning |
6 |
2.8 |
| Children and relationships |
35 |
16.5 |
| Sacrament of marriage |
11 |
5.2 |
| Intimacy |
88 |
41.5 |
| Gender issues |
59 |
27.8 |
| Partner awareness |
61 |
28.8 |
| Self awareness /care / esteem |
180 |
84.9 |
| Spirituality |
31 |
14.6 |
| Expectations |
60 |
28.3 |
| Sexuality |
71 |
33.5 |
| Stress management |
56 |
26.4 |
| Assertiveness |
58 |
27.4 |
| Money and budgeting |
32 |
15.1 |
| Communication / conflict resolution |
164 |
77.4 |
Church-affiliated programs tend to focus on content areas relating to family of origin, expectations, sexuality, money / finances, children and relationships, intimacy and partner awareness than do secular programs. Secular providers more often include content relating to self, stress management, assertiveness and gender issues than do church-affiliated providers. Both secular and church-affiliated providers address communication/conflict resolutions and understanding relationships in their programs (Table 4.27).
Table 4.27: Content included in programs by type of provider
| Content* |
Number of secular programs including this content area |
Number of church-based programs including this content area |
Number of church-affiliated programs including this content area |
| Family of origin |
33 |
11 |
48 |
| Self awareness /care / esteem |
93 |
17 |
70 |
| Spirituality |
0 |
10 |
21 |
| Expectations |
22 |
7 |
31 |
| Sexuality |
25 |
12 |
34 |
| Stress management |
34 |
2 |
20 |
| Assertiveness |
34 |
2 |
22 |
| Money and budgeting |
6 |
8 |
18 |
| Communication / conflict resolution |
78 |
16 |
70 |
| Understanding relationships |
67 |
14 |
58 |
| Family planning |
0 |
3 |
3 |
| Children and relationships |
10 |
3 |
22 |
| Sacrament of marriage |
0 |
5 |
6 |
| Intimacy |
32 |
12 |
44 |
| Gender issues |
29 |
7 |
23 |
| Partner awareness |
17 |
11 |
33 |
* Respondents could list multiple content areas
Further patterns arising out of the data include:
- Many of the mainstream programs share similar content and included sessions on family of origin, spirituality, expectations, sexuality, money / finance, understanding relationships, intimacy, gender and partner awareness.
- All programs offered nationwide (n=10) include content focusing on self-awareness / care / esteem and communication / conflict resolution and almost all of these programs include content on understanding relationships and intimacy.
- Self-awareness / care / esteem, communication / conflict resolution and understanding relationships appear across many programs regardless of their cost. Content such as expectations and sexuality appear to be somewhat more common in courses that cost over $110 per couple.
- Content relating to communication / conflict resolution, understanding relationships, and intimacy tend to appear across all lengths of program. Content addressing gender is less frequent in short programs, while content focusing on spirituality and gender issues are more frequent in programs of 8 – 11 hours duration. Very long programs (more than 17 hours) appear to be more likely to include topics such as stress management, assertiveness and gender issues.
Respondents were asked to identify the types of skills included in their programs and provide some indication of the ways in which these were taught. As noted in Chapter 3, the names attached to the various skills varied quite markedly and sometimes referred to sub-parts of larger skills (for example, responding to body language and checking out are sub parts of overall listening skills). In other instances, activities labelled as skills were, in reality, areas of knowledge. These were excluded from the analysis. This has the overall effect of reducing the number of programs found to be addressing skill development.
In order to facilitate data analysis, the skills reported by respondents were categorised under nine headings:
- affective / relationship management issues (for example, sharing meaning, managing emotions, affect regulation)
- anger management
- conflict resolution
- parenting
- self management (for example, self talk, developing a positive life style)
- stress management
- assertiveness
- communication
- goal setting
It was anticipated that the extent of skill development might also be shaped by a number of factors including the type of program (mainstream or embedded) and the type of provider. Core skill areas such as communication and conflict resolution were included in both mainstream and embedded programs (Table 4.28). However, these data suggest that embedded programs might also pay closer attention to some skills such as assertiveness.
A focus on skills was as likely to appear in secular as church-affiliated programs (Table 4.29). Affective / relationships issues, communication and anger management appeared in similar proportions amongst these two types of providers but assertiveness was almost twice as common in programs delivered by secular as church-affiliated providers. Both goal setting and conflict resolution were somewhat more likely to be addressed in church-affiliated programs.
Table 4.28: Skills development by program type
| Skill |
Number of mainstream programs addressing this skill (N=92)*
n |
Number of embedded programs addressing this skill
(N=25)
n |
| Anger management |
17 |
8 |
| Assertiveness |
26 |
13 |
| Affective / relationship management issues |
19 |
1 |
| Communication |
78 |
16 |
| Conflict resolution |
49 |
17 |
| Parenting |
2 |
1 |
| Self management |
11 |
3 |
| Stress management |
6 |
4 |
| Goal setting |
22 |
7 |
* Some programs did not address skills development
Table 4.29: Skills taught in program by provider type
| Skills* |
Number of secular programs addressing skill
(N=56)
n |
Number of church-based programs addressing skill
(N=8)
n |
Number of church-affiliated programs addressing skill
(N=53)
n |
| Anger management |
9 |
1 |
10 |
| Assertiveness |
25 |
1 |
13 |
| Affective / relationship management issues |
44 |
7 |
43 |
| Communication |
28 |
5 |
33 |
| Conflict resolution |
11 |
1 |
17 |
| Parenting |
1 |
0 |
2 |
| Self management |
10 |
1 |
3 |
| Stress management |
6 |
1 |
3 |
| Goal setting |
12 |
1 |
12 |
* Some programs did not address skills development
While many programs stated they had a focus on skills, further details were sought from respondents to gauge the extent to which skills were developed in programs through the use of specific teaching strategies. Time spent explaining, demonstrating, allowing participants to practice skills, and giving feedback on skills training tended to be highly variable. A small number of programs reported devoting extensive time to the development of a single skill (for example, one program reported spending six hours developing one skill), while others reported only spending five minutes. The median times spent on each of the skill development processes in programs were:
- explaining - 40 minutes;
- demonstrating - 25 minutes;
- practice - 55 minutes; and
- feedback - 30 minutes.
The adequacy of these timeframes is debatable and is obviously dependent upon a number of factors including the skill level of participants, the prior experience of participants in using the skill, the nature of the skill being learnt and the level of the learning outcome for the program. Examination of skills emphasised in programs by length of program reveals the importance placed on communication and conflict resolution skills regardless of the length of program (Table 4.30).
Table 4.30: Skills developed by length of program
| Skill |
Number of programs of 1 – 7.5 hours duration addressing skill
(N =24)
n |
Number of programs of 8 – 11 hours duration addressing skill
(N=23)
n |
Number of programs of 12 – 16 hours duration addressing skill
(N=41)
n |
Number of programs 17 + hours addressing skill
(N=29)
n |
| Anger management |
3 |
6 |
7 |
9 |
| Assertiveness |
7 |
6 |
14 |
12 |
| Affective / relationship management issues |
4 |
2 |
5 |
9 |
| Communication |
19 |
16 |
34 |
25 |
| Conflict resolution |
11 |
14 |
24 |
17 |
| Parenting |
1 |
0 |
1 |
1 |
| Self management |
1 |
1 |
8 |
4 |
| Stress management |
2 |
3 |
2 |
3 |
| Goal setting |
1 |
5 |
10 |
13 |
4.10 Teaching strategies
The most common teaching strategy was lecture/talk (79%), generally supported by various forms of discussion including group discussion (43%), couple time/discussion (53%), and large group work (56%) (Table 4.31). Overall, secular programs appeared to endorse a wider range of teaching strategies in their programs (Table 4.32). They were more likely to use brainstorming, discussion groups, homework and meditation / relaxation strategies. Church-affiliated programs, on the other hand, were more likely to include strategies such as games, genograms, handouts, reflective activities and videos. Coaching, couple time, large group work, lecture/ talks, role plays, small group work, use of written articles and individual reflection techniques were as likely to appear in secular as church-affiliated programs.
Table 4.31: Teaching methods
| Method |
Number of responses |
Percentage of programs that included this method |
| Artwork |
16 |
7.7 |
| Guest speakers |
14 |
6.8 |
| Handouts |
68 |
32.9 |
| Homework |
27 |
13.0 |
| Journal writing |
6 |
2.9 |
| Large group work |
116 |
56.0 |
| Lecture / talk |
164 |
79.2 |
| Meditation / relaxation |
24 |
11.6 |
| Brainstorming |
64 |
30.9 |
| Case studies |
11 |
5.3 |
| Coaching |
29 |
14.0 |
| Couple time / pair discussion |
110 |
53.1 |
| Discussion groups |
88 |
42.5 |
| Games |
76 |
36.7 |
| Genograms |
23 |
11.1 |
| Psychodrama |
1 |
0.5 |
| Question box |
1 |
0.5 |
| Reflective activities |
28 |
13.5 |
| Role plays |
62 |
30.0 |
| Scenarios |
11 |
5.3 |
| Small group work |
109 |
52.7 |
| Videos |
72 |
34.8 |
| Written articles |
129 |
62.3 |
| Individual work / reflective activities |
67 |
32.4 |
Table 4.32: Teaching strategies by type of provider
| Teaching strategy |
Number of secular programs using teaching strategy
(N=109)
n |
Number of church-based programs using teaching strategy
(N=18)
n |
Number of church-affiliated programs using teaching strategy
(N=80)
n |
| Artwork |
5 |
0 |
11 |
| Guest speakers |
9 |
9 |
2 |
| Handouts |
29 |
4 |
35 |
| Homework |
16 |
0 |
11 |
| Journal writing |
4 |
0 |
2 |
| Large group work |
55 |
9 |
52 |
| Lecture / talk |
79 |
17 |
68 |
| Meditation / relaxation |
16 |
0 |
8 |
| Brainstorming |
33 |
2 |
29 |
| Case studies |
4 |
1 |
6 |
| Coaching |
13 |
2 |
14 |
| Couple time / pair discussion |
44 |
12 |
54 |
| Discussion groups |
54 |
5 |
29 |
| Games |
32 |
4 |
40 |
| Genograms |
4 |
3 |
16 |
| Psychodrama |
0 |
0 |
1 |
| Question box |
1 |
0 |
0 |
| Reflective activities |
11 |
2 |
15 |
| Role plays |
27 |
6 |
29 |
| Scenarios |
3 |
0 |
8 |
| Small group work |
50 |
8 |
51 |
| Videos |
29 |
7 |
36 |
| Written articles |
61 |
12 |
56 |
| Individual work / reflective activities |
28 |
8 |
31 |
Further examination of the types of teaching strategies used across a number of program variables, including program type, length of program and number of participants per program, show the following patterns:
- Some teaching strategies appear to be more common in particular program types. Coaching, couple / pair discussion time, games, genograms and meditation / relaxation strategies are reported more frequently in mainstream than embedded programs.
- As expected, the use of handouts, genograms, reflective activities, and role plays appear be more common in programs longer than 12 hours, while strategies such as brainstorming is a more common strategy in shorter programs (less that 7.5 hours).
- Meditation / relaxation activities are more common in smaller group programs (up to ten participants). Reflective activities and individual reflective work are more frequent in programs with 12 – 18 participants while videos appear to be more widely used in programs with large numbers of participants.
4.11 Assessment and evaluation of programs
Assessment focuses on the processes used to gauge the progress of participants towards achieving the learning outcomes established for the program. General observation (93%) and participant self-report (86%) are the most common assessment strategies. Observing participants perform specific tasks was used in just over 56% of programs. Less common assessment strategies included the use of reports provided by participants' partners (17%) and quizzes (13%) (Table 4.33). Educators in secular programs were more likely to use general observation, specific task observation and quizzes in assessment. Educators in church-affiliated programs used partner reports more frequently than their secular counterparts (Table 4.34).
Table 4.33: Assessment strategies
| Assessment strategy |
Number of responses* |
Number of programs where this strategy is used |
| General observation |
191 |
92.7 |
| Observation of a specific task |
117 |
56.8 |
| Participant self-report |
177 |
85.9 |
| Partner report |
36 |
17.5 |
| Quiz |
27 |
13.1 |
* Respondents could report more than one assessment strategy per program
Table 4.34: Assessment strategies by type of provider
| Assessment strategy |
Number of secular programs using assessment strategy
(N=114)
n |
Number of church-based programs using assessment strategy
(N=19)
n |
Number of church-affiliated programs using assessment strategy
(N=79)
n |
| General observation |
106 |
19 |
66 |
| Observation of a specific task |
60 |
13 |
44 |
| Participant self-report |
89 |
15 |
73 |
| Partner report |
11 |
8 |
17 |
| Quiz |
15 |
2 |
10 |
Evaluation focuses on the program and usually seeks to determine the extent to which the program met its stated outcomes (accountability) and how the program might be improved. Providers collect data for their evaluation processes primarily through observation and post course surveys (Table 4.35). Clients are the most used source of evaluative data (91%), followed by educators (71%) and feedback from referees to programs (31%).
Table 4.35: Evaluation strategies
| Evaluation strategy |
Number of responses |
Percentage of programs using this strategy |
| Observation of the course |
179 |
84.8 |
| Post course survey |
176 |
83.4 |
| Follow up interviews / surveys |
42 |
19.9 |
Follow up interviews are more likely to be a feature of programs offered by secular providers, while feedback from referring agencies / agents is used as a source of evaluation data by more church-affiliated than secular providers (Tables 4.36 and 4.37).
Table 4.36 Evaluation strategies by type of provider
| Evaluation strategy* |
Number of secular programs using evaluation strategy
(N=114)
n |
Number of church-based programs using evaluation strategy
(N=19)
n |
Number of church-affiliated programs using evaluation strategy
(N=82)
n |
| Observation of the course |
96 |
19 |
64 |
| Post course survey |
97 |
10 |
69 |
| Follow up interview/surveys |
30 |
3 |
9 |
* Respondents could nominate more than one strategy
Table 4.37: Sources of evaluation data by type of provider
| Source of evaluation data* |
Number of secular programs using source of evaluation data
(N=114)
n |
Number of church-based programs using source of evaluation data
(N=20)
n |
Number of church-affiliated programs using source of evaluation data
(N=82)
n |
| Clients |
102 |
18 |
77 |
| Educators |
79 |
13 |
62 |
| Referring agencies /agents |
25 |
7 |
35 |
*Respondents could nominate more than one source of data
4.12 Resources used in service activities
Program providers were asked to provide lists of books and videos that were used either in the development of programs or in their delivery with clients. Detailed lists of these resources can be found in Appendix C.
4.13 Conclusion
This chapter has presented data from 220 relationship education service activities. These activities were delivered by a diverse group of service providers. These data confirm the diversity of activities and approaches to service delivery that exist across secular, church-affiliated and church-based providers. These data also highlight the existing of the previously unacknowledged 'embedded' relationship education service activity that is offered as part of a broader set of activities to clients in the community.
A number of similarities and differences in the programs offered by the three groups of providers were noted. The differences related to a number of service activity characteristics including:
- geographic location;
- the nature of the target groups addressed by the activities;
- approaches to providing initial training, on-going training and development for educators providing the activities;
- content and teaching strategies used in the delivery process;
- the focus within service activities on the skill development process; and
- approaches and strategies used in assessment and evaluation processes.
In some instances these differences are minor. In other cases, marked differences in service provision represent significantly different approaches. These are often underpinned by service providers developing and working in niche markets which best fit with their mission, philosophy and funding history.
Having painted a broad picture of the relationship education service activities, attention in the next Chapter turns to the process of developing a systematic framework (or typology) as a means of further deepening our understanding of the nature of these services.