Chapter 3: Context

This chapter provides an overview of the current situation for carers in Australia, including data about the carer population, the types of assistance available for carers, and application and eligibility arrangements for Carer Payment (child).

The role of carers

According to a 2003 survey by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS),⁶ one in five people in Australia had a reported disability. Around 317,900 children (one in 12) had a disability and around half of those had a severe or profound core activity limitation, which means they always or sometimes needed assistance from another person with self-care, mobility and/or communication.

The ABS estimated that there were 2.6 million carers who provided some assistance to those who needed help because of disability or age. Around one-fifth of all carers were primary carers, and approximately 54,600 primary carers were co-resident with children aged 0–14 years with severe or profound core activity limitations. The majority (80 per cent) of assistance with self-care for children with severe or profound core activity limitations was informal only.

The term ‘informal’ is used to describe unpaid care, which in the case of children is usually provided by parents or other family members at home. It is not intended to imply, however, that the care provided is casual or without structure. Caring for children with severe disability may involve feeding, washing, dressing, assisting with mobility and communication, managing serious medical conditions and providing therapy. It may also involve assisting the child at school in the classroom. The Taskforce acknowledges that informal carers perform many vital roles and that the willingness and ability of carers to provide care is an integral component of the broader care system. Their contribution is central to sustaining the current system of community-based, person-centred care.

The Taskforce acknowledges the diverse and often complex relationships that exist in caring situations and in the community more broadly, as well as their changing nature over time. Submissions to the Taskforce and feedback received from focus groups highlighted the broad range of tasks carers perform and the significance of the caring load on carers, families and relationships. These issues are discussed further in Chapter 4 under ‘Impact of the caring role’. Caring can be episodic, short term or long term. Never is the caring role static.

In particular, the Taskforce was conscious of the fact that Carer Payment (child) recognises that caring for a child with profound disability is usually a full-time, multiskilled job. Providing constant care leaves little or no time for the activities of normal life. The caring role is one of immense social and economic value.

It cannot be overemphasised that the care provided is often the difference between life and death.

Carers report providing physical assistance with personal care tasks and general activities of daily living, home-based therapy programs, transport to medical appointments, management and maintenance of special care devices, or close supervision and verbal prompting for reasons of safety.

The impact on carers of ongoing developments in medical treatments and technologies was also clearly identified through the consultation process. It is apparent that carers require a high level of knowledge and skill in order to safely support care receivers and, in a significant number of cases, to sustain their lives. Carers often perform complex special care tasks frequently, over prolonged periods (during the night as well as the daytime) in difficult circumstances and with minimal support from formal care or community health services.

‘Please remember that parents do not choose to have children with disabilities. They are faced with a lifelong responsibility of caring for their child and the ongoing stress is significant.’

… … …

‘She is a vital, energetic young lady. Her life is full of complex medical procedures. She wakes each day to a routine of drugs, inhaled antibiotics and elaborate physio routines. Despite all this she still sings, laughs and takes on the day with such gusto.’

‘Care load’ as described by carers of children with severe disability or medical conditions was
one of the major themes emerging from the submissions and consultations. Carers stressed
the impact that caring for a child with disability has over and above that experienced by
families caring for a child of the same age without disability. The care needs of a child with
severe disability were often described as ‘constant’, equivalent to full-time work, ‘24/7’
and relentless.

‘No-one else has to continually change nappies, turn, them, feed them, for so many years. It’s exhausting, sheer exhaustion.’

… … …

‘It’s so huge. Every single part of my life is impacted by my daughter’s disability. Even at 14 years, she is still very dependent. She has no understanding or communication. It’s like caring for a giant sized toddler with no prospect of this changing.’

The preparation and effort required to take a child outside, and the inability to leave even an older child who has severe disability on their own for a brief period of time or in the care of others, make even simple day-to-day activities such as shopping difficult or impossible.

Carers also reported negative effects on their own health and wellbeing, ranging from physical injuries caused by lifting the child to stress-related disorders.

The impact on immediate family and extended family was also highlighted, with siblings often taking on caring and household responsibilities beyond what is usually expected from children their age.

‘All in the family is involved in his care. My 17-year-old son lifts him into the shower, onto the toilet and into bed every day. His caring role started when he was nine and he learnt to suction him so I could have a shower. My older son also has to pin him down while my daughter and I change his tracheostomy once a week or hep lock his port-a-cath.’

… … …

‘[The] most difficult times are being torn between the well child and the ill child, especially as my younger child was only four when my son was diagnosed. She was minded by various friends and family, often in tears, as my husband is away with his business a few nights a week. She did not understand why I could not be there with her. My son would become angry towards us for bringing him to hospital [and] I would feel bad about having to restrain him for various procedures in order for him to obtain treatment. My daughter often was present as he would have to present to hospital at short notice. She witnessed many terrible things.’

… … …

‘Our other son has been dragged out of bed at all hours of the night when we have had to rush [our child] to hospital. He has seen things a little boy shouldn’t have to see. He has seen his mum and dad cry, panic, stressed, traumatised, fighting, etc.— all these things are a result of her illness.’

There was a sense from carers of a lack of a ‘normal’ family life. It is the view of the Taskforce that the significance of the care load experienced by carers in these circumstances is a major barrier to substantial workforce participation and is therefore directly linked to the need for income support. This issue is discussed further in Chapter 4 and has informed, in part, the Taskforce’s recommendations regarding the assessment process for Carer Payment (child).

Carer recognition

The critical role of carers is now being recognised in Australia by both the Australian Government and state and territory governments.

In Western Australia, the Carers Recognition Act 2004 recognises the role of carers, contains a Carers Charter that directs how carers are to be treated, and requires the health and disability sectors to include carers in decision-making processes at both macro and micro levels of service provision.

Carers recognition legislation has also been introduced in the Northern Territory and South Australia that aims to acknowledge carers and their role in the community. In South Australia, the purpose of the Carers Recognition Act 2005 is twofold:

to recognise and support carers and their role in the community; and
for organisations to report on action taken to reflect the Carers Charter in the provision of services relevant to carers and the people they care for.

The Carers Charter in South Australia sets out the rights of carers.

The Australian Capital Territory introduced the Carers Recognition Legislation Amendment Bill 2006 to give public recognition to the role of and contribution made by unpaid, informal carers and to ensure that carers are regarded as partners with government.

Queensland and Victoria have developed carer recognition policies and action plans that establish a framework for government departments and agencies to identify and recognise the important role of carers—not just for those they provide care to but also for the community.

NSW Health has introduced a Carers Action Plan 2007–12 that outlines a whole-ofgovernment commitment to recognising and supporting carers. The plan includes strategies to increase the respect and recognition of carers, reach out to family members who may not see themselves as carers, improve services to carers and the people they care for, encourage agencies to view carers as partners in care, and support carers to combine work and caring.

While it is not within the terms of reference of the review, the Taskforce recommends the Australian Government consider formally recognising the role of carers—for example, through carer recognition legislation and a national action plan for carers. This would demonstrate acknowledgment at the federal level of the contribution made by Australian carers.

Recommendation 1

The Taskforce recommends that the Australian Government recognise the role of carers and introduce carer recognition legislation and a national action plan for carers.

Carer population characteristics

In 2003, of the estimated 2.6 million carers who provided some assistance to those who needed help because of disability or age, about 742,500 were primary carers (19 per cent of all carers). Primary carers are people who provide the majority of the informal help needed by a person with a disability. Of these, around 57,800 were primary carers of children with disabilities (12 per cent of all carers), including approximately 54,600 who were the primary carers of children with a severe or profound core activity limitation.⁷

The majority of primary carers of children with a severe or profound core activity limitation were mothers (91 per cent).⁸

Around 60 per cent of primary carers (32,200) of children aged 0–14 years with a severe or profound core activity limitation provided more than 40 hours of care per week. A further 23 per cent provided 20 to 40 hours of care per week.⁹

Almost half (48 per cent) of primary carers of children with a severe or profound core limitation reported needing more support. Of these primary carers, 40 per cent reported more respite care as their greatest need and 34 per cent reported financial assistance as their greatest need.¹⁰

Most primary carers of children with a severe or profound core activity limitation reported that their relationship with the child was either unaffected (44 per cent) or was closer (37 per cent) as a result of their caring role. However, around 36 per cent of carers reported that their relationship with their spouse was strained or they lacked time together alone. Around 39 per cent reported that they had less time to spend with other family members. One-quarter (25 per cent) reported that they had lost or were losing touch with friends.¹¹

At June 2007, there were around 3,570 Carer Payment (child) recipients, accounting for approximately 3.1 per cent of all Carer Payment recipients (116,600 child and adult payment recipients). The Taskforce notes that this is a very small proportion of the total.

There were 109,100 Carer Allowance (child) recipients, accounting for 28 per cent of all Carer Allowance recipients (393,300 recipients). Carer Payment (child) recipients were caring for 3,860 children, while Carer Allowance (child) recipients cared for 129,300 children. Around 90 per cent of Carer Payment (child) recipients (3,234 people) also received Carer Allowance (child).

A short description of the carer and care receiver populations is included at Appendix D, and a separate statistical summary report has been produced as part of the review.

Impact of demographic change

The National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling in 2004 estimated that by 2031 the number of people needing care will be over one million while the number of available carers will be under 400,000.¹² As the large and relatively wealthy cohort of baby boomers grows older, the demand for services is likely to increase significantly. Carers’ needs will also change as they become older and experience more age-related disability themselves. This effect is most evident in the ageing of the population but carers of children with disability are a small but important group in this wider informal caring population.

Social policy settings that promote higher levels of female labour force participation are therefore in tension with promoting increased carer supply, as their combined effect is to increase the opportunity costs of undertaking informal care. This has implications for the supply of informal carers available to support current and future formal care systems and, consequently, the demand for formal care services by people of all ages with a disability or severe medical condition is projected to increase.

This projection has significant implications for younger, working age groups (particularly women) who will potentially fall into the ‘sandwich generation’, with caring responsibilities for both a child with disability or severe medical conditions and an older parent or relative.

The failure of formal care services to maintain supply consistent with demand will have a significant social, emotional and financial impact upon informal carers and society, as carers’ own health and wellbeing is reduced.

The Taskforce is of the view that government policy relating to support for informal carers, including those caring for children with disability or severe medical conditions, needs to take into account the changing demographics and projected escalating demands for care. Government policies will be important in better aligning the supply of carers and the demand for care services.

Financial support for carers

In 2003, the ABS reported that the principal source of income for all primary carers was a government pension or allowance (55 per cent). For primary carers of children with a severe or profound core activity limitation, the proportion was much higher at 67 per cent. Around 25 per cent of primary carers of children with a severe or profound core activity limitation reported wages or salary as their principal source of income.

In contrast, 51 per cent of people without caring responsibilities reported wages or salary as their principal source of income and 24 per cent reported a government pension or allowance. The median gross personal weekly income for primary carers was $237 in 2003, compared to $407 for people without caring responsibilities.¹³

Carer Payment and Carer Allowance

FaCSIA has policy responsibility for carer payments. Centrelink delivers and administers the payments.

There are two major forms of financial assistance for carers: Carer Payment and Carer Allowance. Each of these has a child stream and an adult stream. Carer Payment (child) and Carer Allowance (child) are paid to carers of children aged under 16 years, and Carer Payment (adult) and Carer Allowance (adult) are paid to carers of people aged 16 years and over. It is clear from evidence given to the Taskforce that the differences between these payment types generally are not well understood in the community.

Carer Payment is an income support payment for people who, because of the demands of their caring role, are unable to support themselves through substantial workforce participation. Carer Payment is subject to an income and assets test and is paid at the same rate as other social security pensions, which is currently $537.70 per fortnight (single) or $449.10 per fortnight each (couple), including the pension supplement. A Pharmaceutical Allowance of up to $5.80 per fortnight for singles and couples is available in addition to the pension payment.

Recipients of the payment also receive a Pensioner Concession Card, which entitles them to concessions on Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme prescription medicines and certain

Medicare services, as well as a range of state and local government services such as transport and utilities. They may also be eligible for additional Centrelink payments such as the Education Entry Payment, Employment Entry Payment, Rent Assistance, Remote Area Allowance, Telephone Allowance or Pensioner Education Supplement. In certain circumstances a $500 advance payment of Carer Payment may be made.

Carer Allowance is an income supplement that is paid in recognition of the caring role. It is not taxable or income and assets tested, can be paid in addition to a social security income support payment, and is currently paid at the rate of $98.50 per fortnight. Carers can receive either Carer Allowance and a Health Care Card in the care receiver’s name, or just a Health Care Card alone in the care receiver’s name. A Health Care Card entitles the cardholder to reduced-cost medicines under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme and to a range of additional subsidies, including health, transport and educational concessions, which vary from state to state.

Carer Payment and Carer Allowance are not intended to compensate carers for providing care, nor are they designed to cover the costs of caring for someone with disability.

Other income support

If families who have children with severe disability or medical conditions do not qualify for Carer Payment (child), which is paid at pension rates, there is no targeted assistance available for them other than Carer Allowance (child), which may be paid to people regardless of whether they are receiving income support or the interim Carer Adjustment Payment, which is described in more detail below.

Families may qualify for other payments; however, there are significant differences between pensions (for example, Carer Payment or the Age Pension) and allowances (such as Newstart Allowance and Parenting Payment—see below) paid through Centrelink. Generally, pensions are paid at a higher rate than allowances, and there are differences in the application of the income and assets tests. Different indexation rates also apply to both types of payment: pensions are indexed to Consumer Price Index (CPI) and Male Total Average Weekly Earnings, and allowances are indexed to the CPI only.

Participation requirements also apply to allowances such as Newstart. While Newstart and Parenting Payment are not targeted specifically to parents of children with severe disability, some special arrangements may apply for parents in this situation. For example, Newstart has a specific participation exemption for principal carer parents caring for a child with a physical, intellectual or psychiatric disability or illness. Chapter 4 contains additional information on participation requirements.

Parenting Payment is an income support payment for parents with a child aged under six (if partnered), aged under eight (if single), or aged under 16 (if in receipt of Parenting Payment prior to 2006). Parenting Payment can be paid to one member of a couple only. When the youngest qualifying child is aged six or over, the person must enter into an Activity Agreement and participate in a broad range of activities, such as employment or training.

Newstart Allowance is an income and assets tested income support payment payable if the person is unemployed, aged 21 or over but under Age Pension age and, unless exempted, able to participate in Jobsearch or other approved activities.

Other payments for carers

Since 2004, the government has paid annual, one-off carer bonuses of $1,000 to Carer Payment recipients and $600 to recipients of Carer Allowance for each eligible care receiver. In 2007, the Australian Government announced a new annual payment, the Child Disability Assistance Payment, of $1,000 for Carer Allowance (child) recipients to help them purchase assistance for their child, such as equipment, therapy or respite.

The Carer Adjustment Payment (CAP) is an interim ex gratia payment scheme that is being offered while the review of Carer Payment (child) is conducted. The CAP is a one-off, nontaxable payment available to families who are in exceptional circumstances. The amount payable to a family will depend on each family’s individual circumstances, with the maximum amount of $10,000 for each child in a single catastrophic event.

The CAP is intended to assist families to adjust following a catastrophic event where a child aged up to six years of age is diagnosed with a severe illness or medical condition, or has a major disability due to injury from an accident. Examples of catastrophic events may include (but are not limited to) a diagnosis of a serious or severe illness or medical condition such as childhood cancer or childhood stroke, or an event such as a car accident, fire, fall, poisoning, near drowning, or other type of accident.

The CAP is discussed further in chapters 4 and 7.

History and purpose of Carer Payment

In the mid-1980s the Australian Government introduced the first payments for carers of people on age or invalid pensions. Over time, the eligibility criteria and types of payments available have expanded. Carer Payment eligibility was extended to cover carers of children under 16 years of age with a profound disability on 1 July 1998. Previously, Carer Payment had only been available to carers of people aged 16 and over.

In 2006, Carer Payment (child) was expanded to include carers of children aged six to 16 years with severe intellectual, psychiatric and behavioural disabilities. A history of the government’s financial assistance for carers appears at Appendix E.

The Taskforce was aware that Carer Payment (child) was originally intended to be confined to the most disadvantaged carers. Those carers were identified as being involved in the highest levels of care, which precluded them from substantial workforce participation, and where the alternative to that care was the institutionalisation of the care receiver. Despite this, the Taskforce noted that the history of the payment and related government assistance has been one of progressive expansion.

The Taskforce has proceeded on the premise that the objective of Carer Payment (child) is to facilitate the provision—usually by parents and other close family members—of the attention and care required by children diagnosed as having severe disability or medical conditions.

For a carer to qualify, the caring load involved must be constant and significantly more than that required for a child of comparable age who does not suffer from the disability and/or condition and, further, it must be the caring role that prevents the carer from supporting himself or herself through substantial workforce participation. The payment is not designed to compensate the carer or the care receiver for the disability/medical condition nor is it intended to assist with the costs of treatment or caring.

The consultation and review process revealed that there is significant uncertainty and confusion about the difference between Carer Payment (child) and Carer Allowance (child). That confusion often relates to a lack of understanding as to the underlying purpose Carer Allowance (child) is intended to fulfil.

The generalised proposition that it is intended to recognise the value of the caring role is difficult for many carers (and others) to understand given the very real, often overwhelming, demands of their caring role.

Recommendation 2

The Taskforce recommends that the government ensure clear and readily accessible information is available about the Carer Payment (child) and Carer Allowance (child) and their purpose, and consider revising the current payment names to more accurately differentiate the intent and nature of each payment.

Carer Payment (child)

Eligibility

Carer Payment (child) is an income support payment for people who, because of their caring responsibilities for a child under 16 years of age with severe disability or medical conditions, are unable to support themselves through substantial workforce participation. To be eligible for Carer Payment (child), stringent criteria must be met, as defined in the Social Security Act 1991 (the Act).

Carer Payment is subject to income and assets tests and is paid at the same rate as other social security pensions, and as mentioned above has both an adult stream and a child stream.

The child for whom the care is provided must require continuous personal care for six months or more because of a disability or medical condition—unless the child is in the advanced phase of a terminal condition—and meet the legislative definition of ‘profoundly disabled child’. A child can be determined to be a ‘profoundly disabled child’ if the child satisfies the medical, behavioural or terminal condition criteria set out in the Act. In broad terms, the care receiver must meet:

terminal condition criteria that relate to a life expectancy not substantially greater than 12 months, or
three out of seven specific medical and physical circumstances, often referred to as the ‘pick-a-box’ criteria; or
at least one of three conditions to do with dangerous, deviant, aggressive or violent behaviour if the care receiver is between the ages of six and 16 years and has a severe intellectual, psychiatric or behavioural disability or medical condition.

Part of the eligibility criteria for the payment is outlined in subsections (2), (2AA) and 2(A)
of section 197 of the Act (see Appendix F; a table that outlines the criteria is also attached at
Appendix G for information).

A carer may also qualify for Carer Payment (child) if they provide care to two or more children
with severe disability or medical conditions whose combined care needs are the equivalent of
a ‘profoundly disabled child’.

Current eligibility is directed to children with severe disability who require ‘continuous
personal care’. In practical terms, the Guide to Social Security Law has defined this as where:

ongoing care is required every day because of a child’s disability;
the amount of care is at least equivalent to a working day, every day; and
the carer is not able to leave the child unattended for any significant period.¹⁴

The care must be required in order to maintain comfort, sustain life or attend to a bodily function that the child cannot manage himself or herself. The care may be active, supervisory or monitoring. ‘Continuous’ does not mean that the carer must spend every minute of the day providing personal care; however, the amount of time spent providing care because of the disability must be at least equivalent to a working day, every day, seven days a week.

Care may be provided in long blocks, short regular intervals or a combination of periods, but it must be the case that the carer is not able to leave the child unattended for any significant period. Carers may, however, take temporary breaks from caring of up to 63 days in a calendar year. Further information about this temporary cessation of care is provided in Chapter 4 and in the Guide to Social Security Law at subsection 3.6.4.40.

Two carers can qualify for Carer Payment (child) for providing care to one child if both individually meet the criteria for providing constant care. Indeed, the intent of the original Carer Payment (child) legislation was to assist families where the child’s care needs were such that often both parents were precluded from substantial workforce participation. Only a very small percentage of Carer Payment (child) care receivers have more than one carer qualified for payment. This may be due to a lack of awareness that more than one carer can qualify for Carer Payment for caring for the same child.

Most Carer Payment (child) recipients are also receiving Carer Allowance (child). Where two carers have qualified for Carer Payment (child) for providing care for one child, they are able to receive only one Carer Allowance (child) payment in respect of the child, even though they may be sharing the care load. Some carers who are aware that only one Carer Allowance (child) payment can be made may assume incorrectly that this also applies to Carer Payment (child).

The low number of multiple Carer Payment (child) recipients for one child could also be due to differing rules for different situations. For example, if a child meets the physical criteria for Carer Payment (child), and two carers are both claiming payment, it would generally be accepted that constant care is being provided by both carers since the child requires a very high level of care to maintain comfort, sustain life and attend to bodily functions. However, the Guide to Social Security Law recommends careful assessment of carers of children who meet the behavioural criteria. A social worker home visit may be necessary to ascertain whether the constant care requirement is met by both carers. This is because a child who meets the behavioural criteria may not necessarily require constant care from two or more carers.

Yet another approach is applied for Carer Payment (adult). More than one carer can qualify and receive payment in their own right for the same adult care receiver, provided they each provide constant care and the care receiver achieves a sufficiently high score on the assessment tool used to partly determine eligibility for Carer Payment (adult), known as the Adult Disability Assessment Tool.

Application process

To apply for Carer Payment (child) and/or Carer Allowance (child), the carer must complete an application form, which is available from Centrelink offices and on the Internet.

For Carer Payment (child), a form must also be completed by the child’s treating doctor (the medical report form) to assess whether the child meets the definition of a ‘profoundly disabled child’ as specified in the Act.

If the carer wishes to claim Carer Allowance (child) as well, a separate form must be filled out either by the same doctor or by a treating health professional using a different assessment process, known as the Child Disability Assessment Tool and the Lists of Recognised Disabilities. This process is outlined not in the Act but in a disallowable instrument.

Circumstance and medical reviews

Centrelink currently reviews customer eligibility across all payment types, and the type of review varies according to the type of payment. For example, Newstart Allowance customers lodge fortnightly forms, those on Widow Allowance lodge forms every 12 weeks, and Carer Payment (adult) recipients are reviewed every two years. This may be a medical review or a circumstance review depending on whether the care receiver’s disability or condition is permanent and not improving and whether the care receiver’s Adult Disability Assessment Tool score is sufficiently high to exclude a medical review. Other reviews such as income and asset reviews are also conducted periodically.

Carer Payment (child) recipients are reviewed periodically, usually every two years, to determine whether the carer is still providing constant care. In most cases this is done over the phone and is a simplified process that does not involve a medical review, unless the carer advises that the child’s condition has improved. However, in cases where two or more children with disability together qualify their carer for Carer Payment, a combined two-yearly circumstance and medical review is undertaken.

If the carer is also in receipt of Carer Allowance (child), this payment will also be reviewed. Where possible, Centrelink attempts to coordinate these reviews with the Carer Payment (child) reviews. Carer Allowance (child) has medical reviews that occur within 12 months of a child reaching each new developmental milestone. These are at:

three years and four months (if Carer Allowance (child) was granted before the child was two years old),
four years and eight months,
seven years,
10 years,
13 years, and
15 years and nine months.

There are no periodic reviews for children below the age of three years and four months as their condition is considered unlikely to improve significantly before they reach that age.

Children with disability or medical conditions that appear on the Carer Allowance Lists of Recognised Disabilities are subject to a simplified process of review. The reviews still occur at the developmental milestones, but new medical information is not required. These reviews check to ensure that the child is still receiving care and attention in the family home, and the review may be done over the phone.

Review and appeals of decisions

Administration of the payments is subject to the same appeals process as other social security payments; that is, a client can ask for a decision to be reconsidered by the Original Decision Maker and, if still dissatisfied with the reconsideration, the decision can then be reviewed by an Authorised Review Officer within Centrelink. If the client believes the Authorised Review Officer’s decision is incorrect, the decision can be referred to the Social
Security Appeals Tribunal and then to the Administrative Appeals Tribunal for review. The appeals process is discussed further in Chapter 5.

⁶ Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004, Disability, Ageing and Carers: Summary of Findings, cat. no. 4430.0.

⁷ Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004, Disability, Ageing and Carers: Summary of Findings, cat. no. 4430.0, and FaCSIA analysis of
2003 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers Confidentialised Unit Record File.

⁸ Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2006, Disability Updates: Children with Disabilities, Bulletin 42.

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ Ibid.

¹² National Centre for Social and Economic Modelling 2004, Who’s going to care? Informal care and an ageing population.

¹³ Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004, Disability, Ageing and Carers: Summary of Findings, cat. no. 4430.0, and FaCSIA analysis of 2003 Survey of Disability, Ageing and Carers Confidentialised Unit Record File.

¹⁴ Australian Government, Guide to Social Security Law, subsection 1.1.C.340.

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