Focus on prevention
Violence against women must stop – their safety, and that of their children, is not negotiable.
The Plan of Action starts where we can have the greatest impact: with what communities can do to reduce and ultimately stop violence against women and their children. Communities, from across Australia must be willing to tackle the problem as no amount of legislation, policy or policing in isolation will eradicate this violence.
For our communities, the first step must be to acknowledge the nature of the problem. Women and men in our society have unequal access to social and economic power8. The evidence demonstrates that while there is no single cause of sexual assault or domestic and family violence, many risk factors associated with these types of violence can be influenced by obvious and covert expressions of inequality in the community.
For example, community and societal ideas of what it means to be a man and to be a woman can contribute to the problem of violence by supporting the traditional gendered power-imbalance. Attitudes and beliefs about gender are learned, and society often teaches deeply held sexist views9. Evidence shows that communities increase the risk of violence against women when they allow norms that support men’s controlling attitudes and behaviour over women, or attitudes that support the notion of male privilege10. These norms include:
- 'macho' constructions of masculinity;
- ideas that 'a woman’s place is in the home';
- notions that men should 'wear the pants' as heads of the household and wage-earners;
- standards that segregate male drinking and encourage excessive or binge drinking;
- standards that create peer pressure to conform to these ideas of masculinity and male behaviour.
Notions of masculinities and violence
The glamourising and normalising of violence and aggressive male stereotypes in the media and on the internet also perpetuate negative attitudes and behaviour towards women. Many studies have identified a relationship between tolerance for physical or sexual violence and an exposure to sexist imagery in television, film, advertising and electronic games. These studies conclude that excessive consumption of imagery which idealises an aggressive, insensitive notion of masculinity, is likely to enhance violence-supportive attitudes11. This is even more evident in the case of pornography (most of which overtly portrays women in an unequal role to men). This is concerning given evidence that a substantial proportion of Australian boys are regular consumers of X-rated video and Internet pornography12.
Specific attitudes about gender-based violence also play a strong role. Violence is enabled when local communities:
- view sexual assault and domestic and family violence as 'invited' by the victim/survivor;
- fail to intervene when they see violence because it is considered a private matter or part of a 'culture';
- accept violence as a legitimate means of settling conflict.
In the case of sexual assault, community members may accept such assault as a rite of passage, or something that 'just happens' (normalising behaviour). Communities also may tacitly support violence by failing to provide alternatives or failing to explicitly oppose it.
'There are two very important messages to consider when thinking about the violence and abuse women and children experience in our society. The first is the profound and long lasting impact across all domains of development, throughout the life course and across generations. These experiences can deprive women of their potential, fragment families and shatter the dreams of our children.
The second message is that it is entirely preventable. In this modern era we have the means and political will to change the future. We can develop respectful relationships, restore hope for a just society and bring to fruition a Nation based on equality and equity for all its citizens.'
Aboriginal Medical and Dental Health academic
Western Australia
[ top ]
Communities can help stop the violence
The evidence suggests that if communities work in partnership with governments and the non-government and private sectors, they can reduce violence against women and their children through their collective actions to:
- understand, discuss and explicitly condemn violence against women and their children;
- promote women as equal and active participants in intimate relationships and public life;
- ensure women have equal access to secure employment, salaries and financial independence;
- reject definitions of 'being a man' or notions of masculinity that are associated with violence;
- promote notions of masculinity that are non-violent13;
- intervene where violence against women and their children is witnessed or suspected;
- provide information about, and links to, available support services;
- render assistance to victims when formal services are limited;
- hold perpetrators accountable and challenge their use of violence;
- provide services to perpetrators to help them change their behaviour;
- address factors that contribute to violence in the wider community by encouraging the responsible service and consumption of alcohol; addressing the abuse of drugs; discussing the nature, causes, and impacts of violence against women; and enforcing demanding media and internet standards to prevent glamourised violence and negative sexualisation and denigration of women;
- promote education respectful relationships.
If the longer term goal is eradication of violence, then society needs to dramatically increase its understanding of why violence occurs in the first place. International evidence suggests that primary prevention strategies that work across many levels (such as the attitudes and behaviours of individuals, the way people operate in relationships and families, the way they engage as communities, and how social structures and institutions are regulated) are the most effective.
The evidence also suggests that social marketing campaigns that promote gender norms against violence, combined with approaches that mobilise communities to stand against violence, and programs based in education and sports settings, are more likely to produce cultural change that reduces tolerance for violence against women and aids prevention in the first instance14.
'Some of the issues start in early childhood with boys being allowed to be 'rough' [boys being boys] and told to be tough [not show emotion]. This is an issue for the way some women parent boys as much as their male role model.'
Child psychiatrist
Western Australia
Community programs that address violence-exacerbating behaviour must also be supported. These include: efforts to address violent male-on-male behaviour in situations such as sporting environments, or gangs that legitimise the use of violence as a means for addressing grievances15.
Some communities may face problems that exacerbate or enable violence against women and their children. For example, many remote and/or Indigenous communities experience housing conditions (like overcrowding or the presence of violent individuals in the dwelling) that tend to increase the incidence of violence. Several factors can increase the vulnerability of immigrant and refugee women to violence. These include cultural or religious practices that subordinate women and cultural expectations that loyalty to family and community take precedence over personal safety16. The circumstances of individual communities must always be assessed and addressed.
A National Centre of Excellence
Achieving our vision for Australia that 'women and their children live free from violence, within respectful relationships, and in safe communities', requires a concerted effort on many levels. Australia’s commitment to reducing violence against women and their children has already been demonstrated by the Australian Government, all State and Territory governments, many non-government agencies, and all those who have contributed to the Plan’s development.
To capitalise on this commitment and growing momentum, Australia needs a centralised, independent body to lead the thinking, and to drive and coordinate the Plan of Action’s implementation. It also needs a collaborative consortium that links, and builds upon, the existing mechanisms in the separate fields of sexual assault and domestic and family violence prevention. Governments need to increase cooperation and reduce duplication across, and within, these fields, while still recognising the different needs of victims and survivors, and the various motivations of the perpetrators.
A centralised, independent, and expert capability is needed to coordinate evidence building and sharing through research, data collection, data analysis, monitoring, evaluation and review. The Council proposes that a National Centre of Excellence for the Prevention of Violence against Women be established. This body would:
- provide a central point for monitoring and reporting on the effects of the Plan of Action;
- provide a national resource for the development of policy and benchmarks;
- develop and promote 'gold-standard' practice to reduce violence against women and their children across Australia;
- create an international primary point of contact for Australia’s response to sexual assault, and domestic and family violence;
- establish alliances with international observatories to grow and expand the nation’s knowledge base.
The centre’s coordinating capability would draw from, and strengthen, existing efforts and structures including:
- research activities in different settings;
- the Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse and the Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault;
- state-based facilities such as the Domestic Violence Resource Centre in Victoria and the Queensland Centre for Domestic and Family Violence Research;
- peak bodies such as the National Association of Services Against Sexual Assault and the Women’s Services Network.
The centre should consist of a core physical entity and its governance arrangements should include a key role for the Council, and for sexual assault and domestic and family violence service peak bodies. Governance arrangements should also include links with relevant existing external entities.
[ top ]
Strengthening community leadership, awareness, and understanding
At every level in our communities leadership is needed to speak out against violence against women and their children. Government, business, non-government, community organisations, and individual champions, all have a role.
The leadership role that governments (Commonwealth, State, Territory and local governments) play is critical. Governments must place the issue of violence against women at the front of their agenda. Government has a clear responsibility to ensure that the community has a sound knowledge and understanding of acceptable behaviour and relevant laws. Government also should inform the community of the nature and impact of violence against women and their children in Australia, and encourage the community to refuse to tolerate it. Government is in a position to equip the community with concrete strategies for actively opposing violence. The strategies and actions in this Plan of Action recommend that governments direct resources and expertise to these ends.
It is critical that community leaders, both individual and organisational, adopt and expand upon government leadership initiatives. Social and community organisations such as sporting, political, spiritual, and specific-interest groups are as important as government in shaping the attitudes and behaviours of Australians. Just as negative social norms and peer pressure may contribute to the pervasive problem of violence against women; positive discussions, modelling, and action by peers can promote norms and conditions that reduce this violence.
'The AFL came to this issue late. And we came to it because some very brave and determined women told us about their experiences. It made us look closely at our football culture. This was not an easy thing to do. It would have been easier to treat their comments as 'one offs' or individual events that had nothing to do with the rest of the football community. We couldn’t ignore them and we didn’t. And it was due to their bravery in coming forward that our Respect and Responsibility Policy began to evolve … Respect and Responsibility is about changing attitudes and changing cultures … and about doing everything we can to promote a respectful, safe and inclusive environment for women and girls – both for those who are part of the industry [as players, coaches, umpires, Club presidents and volunteers], and those who come into contact with our game.'
Andrew Demetriou, CEO, Australian Football League
At the launch of the Specialist Sex Offences Unit at the Office of Public Prosecutions in Victoria,
26 April 2007
Business also has a prominent role in setting standards for individual workplaces and more broadly, for entire industries. It is clear that the private sector has a major influence on the attitudes and standards of the community. The Plan of Action encourages businesses to embrace this responsibility and proposes actions that enhance women’s economic independence.
To unite the many and various strands of the Australian community on this issue, the Council recommends that the Australian Government invites the Federal Opposition to support the broad directions and timeframe outlined in this Plan of Action. The Council believes it is essential that Australia takes a long-term stand of determined, strong and consistent action to ensure we bring about real change in the Australian community.
The Council asks that governments at the State and Territory and local level also commit to support this Plan of Action over the long term. This would drive changes in community attitudes and behaviour and demonstrate commitment to the Plan within all levels of the community.
[ top ]
Promoting non-violent male behaviour
There is a growing body of evidence on violence prevention practice among boys and young men that suggests it is important to involve men in building gender equality17. There are many examples of individual communities developing initiatives that create a culture of non-acceptance of violence against women. Some of these are entirely local and others join a wider, even national, movement.
In North Queensland, a joint initiative between the Normanton Building Safer Communities Action Team (BSCAT) and the Normanton Stingers Indigenous Rugby League team was implemented in March 2007 and demonstrated outstanding results.
The slogan 'Domestic Violence – it's not our game' was adopted by the team, and the team agreed to become role models in the community by not engaging in domestic or family violence. The penalty for breach of the agreement was exclusion from games and ultimately from the team.
When the media campaign started on Imparja TV in May 2007 featuring the players and the slogan, there was a 55 per cent decrease in reported cases of domestic violence in Normanton, compared to the previous year (May to July 2006). Police reported that breaches of existing Domestic Violence Orders decreased by 64 per cent compared to the same period the previous year (March to July 2006).
This remarkable venture was supported by a $5,000 grant from the local Carpentaria shire, and the resources of the Rugby League’s One Community initiative, demonstrating the power not only of positive role-modelling but of cooperative community-based action.
Wendy Cochrane
Australian Institute of Criminology Young People, Crime and community Safety Conference
February 2008
Men’s groups and networks that are oriented towards wider social change and working in collaboration with women and women’s groups are needed to change the social norms and power relations which underpin men’s violence against women.
Involving boys and men in efforts to end violence against women enhances the effectiveness of initiatives and young men’s sense of a personal stake in this project18. It counters the perceptions that violence against women is a 'women’s issue' and that only women have something to gain from strong relationships, a reduction in violence,, and greater gender equality.
The involvement of men and boys in ending violence against women sends a powerful message to other men and boys about the importance and status of non-violence, and acts as a counterbalance to the sexist peer cultures to which many men and boys may belong.
Men’s attitudes and behaviour are shaped in powerful ways by their male associates, as their 'insider’s knowledge' of the workings of masculinity make them more credible in the eyes of other men19. This is particularly true of the role-modelling relationship between fathers and sons, and also applies to many other male-to-male peer relationships. It is therefore crucial that men are receiving positive messaging and modelling from other men.
The White Ribbon Campaign is an international campaign led by men who take a stand to end violence against women and aim to be positive role models to other men in the community. In 1999, the United Nations General Assembly declared November 25 the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women and the white ribbon has become the symbol for the day. Wearing a white ribbon signifies a personal pledge that the wearer 'will not commit, condone or stay silent about violence against women, and will actively work to eliminate it.'
In Australia, the campaign is managed by the White Ribbon Foundation and is led by a growing team of more than 600 male community leaders from all sectors of the community. As White Ribbon Ambassadors, they take an active role in promoting the campaign. Individuals are encouraged to self-nominate or are nominated by others to become White Ribbon Ambassadors and use their networks to promote the message of equality between men and women and the importance of non-violent and respectful relationships. The Ambassadors are supported by a national media campaign advertising the same messages20a.
Enhanced community awareness and education programs are needed to change violence-supportive attitudes. These initiatives must always based on the notion of gender equality and the need to shift men’s consciousness from one of privilege to one of mutuality20. They need to make men question their own economic, social, and political power over women (in their roles as fathers, husbands, brothers, sons, friends, colleagues and employers) in order to transform gender relations. They should also promote a sense of 'bystander responsibility' for the violence of other men towards women21.
There is evidence that media-based programs can produce a change in men’s attitudes towards violence against women22, though efforts should endeavour to reach men and boys in a range of settings such as sporting clubs, social clubs, scouts and cubs, on-line communities, unions and associations, spiritual groups, service organisations supporting women in non-nuclear households, and other communities. The Plan of Action recommends governments develop, in partnership, a considered, long-term, and detailed national social marketing strategy with clear and consistent messages targeted at effecting changes in community attitudes to violence.
[ top ]
Enhancing women’s economic independence
Lack of financial independence is a major factor influencing a woman’s decision to remain with a violent partner23. In Australia, domestic violence is frequently associated with poverty24 25 and homelessness26 27. Therefore, financial independence and security is essential for leaving an abusive relationship28 29.
While the incidence of violence is similar across all social, cultural, economic and geographical boundaries. Australian research shows a correlation between domestic violence and poorer economic outcomes after the event. For example, domestic violence victims tend to have a history of unemployment and have higher levels of job turnover. They also report less job stability, more interrupted work patterns, and tend to be employed in lower skilled and lower paid jobs with little opportunity for promotion30 31. Longitudinal research suggests that the relationship between being a victim of violence and unemployment often continues for many years after the violence ends, highlighting the long-term impact of violence on women’s capacity to be economically independent and secure32.
'It was a struggle to hold down my job. He wouldn't stay away; he would come and cause a ruckus so I would be sacked. He phoned my boss and told lies about me. Luckily, my boss knew about the violence and he didn't like my husband so I didn't get sacked, but in the end I just had to give up work, it was all too much.'
Insurance office receptionist
Sustainable employment is important in promoting economic security and independence among survivors of sexual assault and domestic and family violence33. It has been argued that training and employment transition services that focus on long-term, as well as short-term, outcomes are vital to ensuring sustained economic independence among sexual assault and domestic violence victims/survivors34 35 . In addition to the obvious financial benefits of sustained employment for survivors of sexual assault, and domestic and family violence, employment also provides social support/connectedness, escape from isolation, improved self-esteem, confidence, and self-worth36.
Having said this, it must be recognised that there are many women experiencing violence who may never be able to participate in paid employment because of disability, age, or caring responsibilities. Therefore support structures must also focus on women who are reliant on welfare support.
As financial dependency increases isolation and vulnerability to violence, strategies that help to support women in developing their capacity to live economically independent lives will contribute to any prevention agenda that is seeking to stop violence from occurring in the first instance.
Building the evidence base
Evidence of effective measures to reduce violence against women is critical to building our understanding of how to prevent it. It is also essential to ensuring that resources are directed where they will have the most impact, and in measuring the progress towards achieving the Plan of Action’s outcomes.
Data relating to violence against women and their children in Australia is poor. Data on services sought by, and provided to, victims is not readily available, and the way in which information is reported is generally inconsistent and does not allow for a comprehensive understanding of violence against women. Variations in data estimates across Australia are affected by differences in what is captured, counted and reported across States and Territories.
There are also personal and institutional barriers in decision making within and across systems that reduce the extent to which sexual assault and domestic and family violence is disclosed and reported. This affects the capacity of data to accurately reflect the real numbers of women and children who experience this violence. The difficulty in measuring the true extent of sexual assault and domestic and family violence in the community has been widely acknowledged.
The Background Paper to Time for Action: The National Council’s Plan for Australia to Reduce Violence against Women and their Children, 2009-2021, has highlighted the need for robust data collection systems to support prevention and early intervention services. A national minimum data set needs to be developed (including a data dictionary and standard protocols) to enable consistent and standardised data collection methods and analysis for sexual assault and domestic and family violence. The development of common on-line databases that have the ability to monitor individuals across the service sector and across jurisdictions (with, for example, the use of a unique identifier) will also support accurate and meaningful national data collection.
Data at all levels must be regularly updated to measure the progress of the Plan of Action’s outcomes and to determine areas that need better resources or new methods.
[ top ]
Strategies and actions
To create communities that are safe and free from violence, the Plan of Action focuses on five key strategies:
1.1 Focus on prevention.
1.2 Strengthen community leadership, awareness and understanding.
1.3 Promote positive male behaviours.
1.4 Enhance women’s economic independence.
1.5 Build the evidence base.
1.1 Focus on prevention
1.1.1 Develop a national primary prevention framework that draws on international and national evidence of the most effective strategies for preventing violence against women, and prioritises key settings and population groups in which to coordinate primary prevention initiatives and actions.
1.1.2 Establish a National Centre of Excellence for the Prevention of Violence against Women to lead thinking, broker knowledge, co-ordinate a national research agenda and data collection effort, provide a national and international primary point of contact and monitor and report on the impact of the Plan of Action.
1.1.3 For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, in particular in isolated and remote communities, increase access to appropriate housing to reduce overcrowding and the incidence of sexual assault and family violence that may arise from such situations.
1.1.4 Support local communities that take a stand against the excessive use of alcohol and other substances that exacerbate violence against women and their children, by anticipating flow on effects and the need for additional services, and by creating a rapid response capability.
1.2 Strengthen community leadership, awareness and understanding
1.2.1 Increase opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men and women to share their understanding, experience and learning about sexual assault and domestic and family violence with immigrant and refugee groups. Create opportunities for them to learn from each other regarding ways in which to engage their communities to address attitudes and behaviours leading to violence.
1.2.2 Increase the development and availability of leadership and mentoring programs for women and men to harness the positive capacities within communities as well as build to improve community safety in disadvantaged localities.
1.2.3 Provide incentives that recognise effective affirmative action strategies within Community Councils and Local Governments to increase the participation of women in leadership and community decision-making roles.
1.2.4 Develop targeted programs to redress violence-supportive attitudes common to particular communities or to the Australian community as a whole.
1.2.5 Support the transition of newly arrived immigrants and refugees by ensuring orientation and opportunities provided through the English on Arrival language courses, familiarises them with Australian laws and the Australian legal system, including principles of gender equality and the value placed on respectful relationships in Australian society.
1.2.6 Strengthen media and internet standards to address sexualised and denigrating representations of women, and minimise the impact of the persistent exposure to representations of violence in childhood and adolescence.
1.3 Promote positive male behaviours
1.3.1 Recognising that most men are not violent towards women, encourage men to take a role in countering such violence and promote understanding of, and support for, expressions of masculinities that are non-violent. For example:
- Increasingly target men and boys as agents promoting an end to men's violence against women (such as in the White Ribbon Campaign and programs in clubs and sporting and other organisations).
- Encourage men who play a leading role in the community, such as members of parliament, government officials, academics, business or community leaders, when making a public address, in addition to acknowledging the traditional owners of the land, to declare that they reject violence against women and their children in any form.
1.3.2 Fund culturally-appropriate mediation and conflict resolution training for non-violent men and women in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities to strengthen their role and influence in assisting to solve community and family disputes which occur as part of their everyday life.
1.3.3 As part of a broader social marketing plan, provide factual information to workplaces and communities to challenge myths and change attitudes about violence against women, and give guidance on protective behaviours and available supports and services designed to engage people of different ages and abilities and positioned to be meaningful within the context of different cultures.
1.4 Enhance women’s economic independence
1.4.1 Women’s Ministers, nationally, make representation to the Gender Pay Equity Inquiry and the Pensions Review, asking that the interrelationship between violence against women, lack of economic independence and gender inequality be considered as part of their reviews, and addressed within their recommendations.
1.4.2 Develop specific formal and informal employment support initiatives with businesses (including affordable childcare) that enable women who have experienced violence to enter or return to the workforce.
1.4.3 Encourage employers to provide flexible working arrangements for women who have experienced violence.
1.4.4 Explore incentives for employers to recruit and retain women who have experienced violence.
1.4.5 Encourage, support and recognise business initiatives which prevent gender-related violence (for example, sexual harassment) in the workplace.
1.5 Build the evidence base
1.5.1 Include 'Communities are safe and free from violence' as the fifth Priority Goal under the Promoting and Maintaining Good Health National Research Priority.
1.5.2 Establish a minimum data set including a data dictionary and standard protocols to enable consistency and standardised data collection methods and analysis for sexual assault, domestic and family violence. This data set must be disaggregated by sex and segmented by marginalised groups (for example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities; culturally, linguistically and religiously diverse communities; and women with disabilities) wherever this is possible, and complemented by targeted research where disaggregation by marginalised group is not possible.
1.5.3 Enhance the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Personal Safety Survey to encompass physical and non-physical abuse; and provide adequate sample sizes for generating reliable data for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and other specific sub-populations.
1.5.4 As part of a national survey, measure attitudes to gender inequality, respectful relationships and women’s safety every five years to redress violence-supportive attitudes and encourage the development and growth of respectful relationships and gender equality as social norms in our community.
1.5.5 Implement the results of the ABS Statistical Framework for Family and Domestic Violence.
1.5.6 Undertake the ABS Personal Safety Survey every five years to increase our understanding of the prevalence and incidence of personal violence in our community.
1.5.7 At regular intervals (every five years) undertake research and report on the impacts and costs of sexual assault and domestic violence to the Australian community.
[ top ]
References
Anderson, D. K. and Saunders, D. G. (2003) ‘Leaving an abusive partner: An empirical review of predictors, the process of leaving, and psychological well-being’ Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, no. 4.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2007) Homeless people in SAAP, Supported Accommodation Assistance Program National Data Collection Agency Annual Report 2005-06, Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Branigan, E. (2004) His money or our money? Financial abuse of women in intimate partner relationships, Coburg, Vic: Coburg-Brunswick Community Legal and Financial Counselling Centre Inc.
Browne, A. Salomon, A. and Bassuk, S. S. (1999) ‘The impact of recent partner violence on poor women’s capacity to maintain work’. Violence Against Women, vol. 5.
Chronister, K.M. and McWhirter, E. H. (2003) ‘Applying social cognitive career theory to the empowerment of battered women’, Journal of Counselling and Development, vol. 81.
Connell, R.W. (2003) ‘The role of men and boys in achieving gender equality,’ paper for The Role of Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality Expert Group Meeting, DAW, ILO and UNAIDS, Brazil 21-24 October.
Connell, R.W. (1995) Masculinities, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Costello, M. Chung, D. and Carson, E. (2005) ‘Exploring alternative pathways out of poverty: Making connections between domestic violence and employment practices’ Australian Journal of Social Issues, vol. 40, no. 2.
Flood, M. (2008) ‘Involving men in efforts to end violence against women’, Presentation to From Margins to Mainstream: 5th World Conference on the Promotion of Mental Health and the Prevention of Mental and Behavioural Disorders, 10–12 September, Melbourne.
Flood, M. (2003) ‘Men’s collective struggles for gender justice: the case of anti-violence activism’ in Kimmel, M., Hearn, J. and Connell, R.W. (eds) The Handbook of Studies on Men and Masculinities, pp.458-466. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Flood. M. (1998) Mens’ Movements, Community Quaterly, 46.
Flood, M. and Hamilton, C. (2003) Youth and Pornography in Australia: Evidence on the extent of exposure and likely effects, Canberra: The Australia Institute.
Flood, M. and Pease, B. (2006) The Factors Influencing Community Attitudes in Relation to Violence Against Women: A Critical Review of the Literature, Melbourne: Victorian Health Promotion Foundation.
Gadd, D. (2002) ‘Masculinities and violence against female partners’, Social and Legal Studies, vol. 11 no. 1.
Kaufman, M. (2001) ‘Building a movement of men working to end violence against women’, Development, vol. 44, no. 3.
Lindhurst, T. Oxford, M., and Gillmore, M. R. (2007) ‘Longitudinal effects of domestic violence on employment and welfare outcomes’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 22, no. 7.
Lloyd, S. and Taluc, N. (1999), ‘The effects of male violence on female employment,’ Violence Against Women, vol. 5.
Lloyd, S. (1997) ‘The effects of domestic violence on women’s employment,’ Law and Policy, vol. 19.
Marcolin, S. (2005) Female SAAP clients and children escaping domestic and family violence 2003-04, Bulletin Issue 30, Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Messerschmidt, J. (1993) Masculinities and Crime, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.
Pease, B. (2008) Engaging men in men’s violence prevention: exploring the tensions, dilemmas and possibilities, Australian Domestic & Family Violence Clearinghouse Issues Paper no. 17.
Rees, S. and Pease, B. (2006) Refugee settlement, safety and wellbeing: exploring domestic family violence in refugee communities, Victoria: Fishprint.
Tolman, R.M. and Raphael, J. (2000), ‘A review of research on welfare and domestic violence’, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 56, no. 4.
Tomsen, S. (2002) Hatred, murder and male honour: Anti-homosexual killings in New South Wales, 1980-2000, Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.
VicHealth. (2007) Preventing violence before it occurs: a framework and background paper to guide the primary prevention of violence against women in Victoria, Melbourne: Victorian Government.
[ top ]